The Learning Center allows me the opportunity to work with a wide range of people and to encounter numerous personalities, not to mention learning styles. --Senior Consultant

Types of Clients

Because consultants serve all the students of Berea College, the clientele is varied. Clients may be from any year or class, since so many Berea courses and activities include writing and speaking assignments. Frequently Learning Center serves some particular groups of students, including:

• Students in General Education Classes
1. First year general education students
2. Students in upper level general education courses
• ESL students
• Students in study-intensive courses such as:
1. Psychology 100
2. Anatomy and Physiology
3. Education Studies
4. Nursing
• Students writing/speaking in their disciplines:
1. Research Methods in Psychology
2. Senior Seminar in Psychology
3. Senior Seminar in Biology
4. Business: Organizational Behavior / Marketing / Business Law
5. Students preparing for standardized exams and job-hunting

These students usually come to the Learning Center to work on materials from GST 100 (Stories), GST 203 (U. S. Traditions), and/or GST 109 (Introduction to the Arts). Though many classes work on oral communication and listening skills through class discussions and oral presentations, reading and writing are the emphasized areas within the class. The majority of students' work includes journals, reading skills improvement, grammar skills improvement, and small, formal (3-5 pages) papers. These efforts culminate in one (or more) documented essay(s) in GST 103 (U. S. Traditions). Many clients will come to work on specific assignments; be alert for related needs in other communication/learning areas (See also GST section).

These students generally come in to work on materials for GST 200-201 (Western Traditions I and II), GST 232 (Natural Science), GST 355 (Seminar in World Issues), and GST 475 (Seminar on Christianity and Contemporary Culture). Most of the work is done on longer papers (4-8 pages), study skills (for natural science), journals, and research papers (8-15 pages). Senior Seminars require research papers of up to 15 pages. These courses frequently demand oral presentations as well.

International students who speak English as a Second Language (ESL) usually come to the Learning Center to work on specific class assignments. They tend to have problems with idiomatic expressions, awkwardness, and wordiness in their writing. Many times ESL students want to have the rules and reasons behind advice explained in more technical detail than do students who have a natural feel for the language. Additionally, because English is not the students' native language, they may need to work on basic skills including grammar, spelling, article usage, prepositions, and reading skills. Some ESL students simply want the opportunity to practice speaking. See the ESL Notebook for resources for working with ESL students.

These students are usually in study-intensive courses such as Psychology 100, nursing classes, Anatomy and Physiology, or are planning to enter education studies. These students come in to improve their study, time-management, and test taking skills. Typically, they want basic tips and advice on how to study effectively and take tests. Reviewing their notes and texts can help you define their needs. Effective studying is dependent on effective reading, so be alert for needs in reading strategies and comprehension.

These students are usually juniors or seniors who are in classes in their majors. These seminar-type classes are generally constructed to prepare the student to enter the job market with extensive skills in their chosen field. Each major has specific requirements for papers and presentations. For more information and sample papers, refer to the course notebooks located in the Learning Center library. Also useful are the texts discussing writing in different disciplines on the staff shelf. Some of the courses are described below:

• Research Methods in Psychology
In this course, students are required to write a proposal to carry out independent research. The research includes: finding and interpreting primary psychological literature; designing, conducting, and presenting psychological research; and writing a series of class research projects culminating in the preparation of an individual research proposal. Their main focuses are research, organization of materials, and a written presentation of those materials.
• Senior Research in Psychology
This course is a follow-up to Research Methods. Students carry out their proposed experiment. Skills involved include analyzing and gathering data, conducting the proposed experiment, and writing a detailed article describing the experiment and results. Students' main focuses are research, organization of materials, conducting the experiment, analyzing data, and written and oral presentations of those materials.

Elements of a Scientific Paper: Psychology

(Prepared by Audry Echanique)

Title

One single paragraph of 100-120 words, no more than 960 characters and spaces dense, well organized, coherent, readable, non-evaluative self-contained: problem, purpose, participation, methods, results, conclusion

Open with statement of purpose/intro to problem/importance of problem lit. review with students' own points as topic sentences/use of previous studies' results and methodologies

Summary/background of topic sufficiently developed transition/difference between previous studies and your own theory/hypothesis and clear definition of all variables

Design-variables and statistics identified clearly

Results:

• Main findings reported first, followed by supporting details, shift from general to specific
• Results organized similar to organization of hypothesis
• Shift from descriptive to inferential
• Comparison of means, standard deviations
• Statistical significance, alpha levels
• Reference to tables and figures in text
• Data tables

Discussion

• Begin with recognition of support hypothesis
• Was theory supported
• Results compared with results of studies mentioned in intro
• Resolution of original problem/contribution
• Alternate theories if applicable
• Conclusions and theoretical implications

References

Appendices

In this course, students are required to carry out original research or do library research on a topic of their choice. Each student then writes an article based on his or her work and presents an oral report of the work. The main focus of this class is research, organization of materials, and written and oral presentation of those materials.

See handout on "15 Steps to Writing a Science Paper" and McMillan’s Writing in the Biological Sciences.

These classes are a little different from other seminars. Students are required to make a number of class presentations of case studies in business. Students prepare for their final presentation in teams. The Learning Center has videotapes of presentations from past years. Typically, a team will come in separately or together to view past videotapes. Then, they will come in to have their presentation videotaped and critiqued by Learning Center consultants. Some of these classes do formal research papers or prepare business plans.

Graduating students come in for help studying for the GRE, a graduate school entrance exam. Also, graduate nursing students come in for extra help with studying for their final exams, and education students come in for help with exams such as the PRAXIS. Sociology students come to the Learning Center for help with their interviewing skills. Students entering the job market come in to brush up on their interview skills and resume writing.

Materials related to standardized tests can be located on the shelves in the front office of the Learning Center, specifically on the upper right hand corner. You may wish to browse these materials to get a better idea of the help your client(s) may need. The general handouts on test taking (Conquering the Multiple Choice Exam, Essay Exam: Important Directive Words, and Test Taking: Objective Exams) may also provide useful tips. Resources on specific areas of concentration may be helpful, if your client seems to be struggling with a particular section of a test.

• Standardized Tests: Education Studies

In order to obtain Teacher Certification from Berea College, Education studies majors are required to take various tests at set points in their enrollment here, and must pass these tests with at or above a set score. These students may seek assistance at the Learning Center. Below is a list of the tests, and the minimum accepted scores in each, that Education students will be studying for:

• ACT:

This test must be passed with a composite score of 21 or above in order to be admitted to the Teacher Education Program (TEP), no later than the 6th semester. The main components of this test are: reading, writing, math, social studies, and science. If this test was taken in high school and received a composite score of 21 or above, it is not necessary to take it again. If a composite score of 21 or above cannot be obtained after two attempts then the PPST must be taken. (If the ACT was taken in high school, this is considered the first attempt.)

• PPST (Praxis Series Pre-Professional Skills Test):

This test is taken only if the ACT has not been passed with a composite score of 21 or above after the second attempt. As with the ACT, the PPST must be taken prior to admission to the TEP, no later than the 6th semester. For this test, a reading score of at least 173, a math score of at least 173, and a writing score of at least 172 are required. Three books titled Learning Plus (Mathematics, Writing, Reading) are available with Learning Center's standardized test materials, and these may be used to help students prepare for the PPST.

• PRAXIS:

This test is taken at the end of the 8th semester, in order to be admitted to the Professional Term in the 9th semester. The procedure varies according to the certification area, as is noted in the Teacher Education Handbook. A bulletin describing the PRAXIS can be found with the rest of the Learning Center's standardized tests material.

• Standardized Tests: GRE

Students planning to attend graduate school in any field usually take the Graduate Record Examination. The GRE General Test includes three areas: verbal, analytic, and mathematics. Descriptions, sample tests, vocabulary lists, and study guides (some including disks with practice tests) are available on the Standardized Test shelf in the front room. Learning Center also has books describing GRE Subject Tests. Note that a practice GRE test is available on a computer in Hutchins Library. Consult the resource list for more details about materials.

Although the Learning Center does honor walk-in clients, consultants should encourage clients to make an appointment rather than drop by the Learning Center for help. The consultant will have had more time to prepare material to help a client with an appointment, and the client with an appointment has first claim on our services. In either type of session, however, the consultant must prepare for the session and follow the same basic procedure. S/he should be ready to answer many types of questions and be familiar with our records systems and the Learning Center library in order to direct the client to the right resources. Consultations may be held in the front office area at the tables, or any of the back areas, or in the garden outside our door. A consultant may go with a client to the Library if the consultant feels that his/her presence will be beneficial to the client.

1. Before the session, the consultant should check the records file or database to get information on the client's past Learning Center visits.
2. When the client comes to the door, the consultant or office assistant should greet the client courteously and inquire about the nature of the visit. First impressions are crucial in forming an opinion of the Learning Center. Therefore, the consultant must be sure s/he is verbally and non-verbally communicating in a positive, professional and helpful manner.
3. The consultant or office assistant should politely ask the client to complete the top portion of the Learning Center Visit Report. Then s/he should find out with whom the client has an appointment, notify the consultant and, if necessary, introduce the client to the consultant. If the client does not have an appointment, the office assistant or consultant should see who is available to work. It is extremely important that staff members not give the client the impression that anyone at the Learning Center is reluctant to help!
4. Once the client has signed in and the session has begun, the consultant should do a needs assessment. If this is the client's first visit to the Learning Center, the consultant should give a brief introduction of the services Learning Center offers and what the client may expect from Learning Center. S/he should ask the reason for the visit. If it is to work on a particular assignment, s/he should ask to see it, find out its stage of completion, the name of the class, and the instructor's name. Other useful questions include the client's work on the assignment to this point, difficulties encountered, current needs, and plans for future work. If it isn't a specific assignment for a class, the consultant should ask questions to understand the length of the project or the basic motive for coming to the Learning Center. For example, a student may come for vocabulary improvement on the CTBS basic skills test. Getting background on the client's motivation and needs will help the consultant and the client in planning sessions. A consultant should alert himself or herself for needs the client may not immediately state.
5. The consultant and client should agree on an agenda for the session: what they'll work on and in what order.
6. The consultant should conduct a consulting session based on methods learned in staff development, the needs assessment, and client's desires.
7. If the consultant notices a particular problem, s/he should encourage the student:
• to come in for more work.
• to return at any time for feedback on other work.
• to consult with the Learning Center in the early stages of an assignment or project.
8. At the end of the session, the consultant should complete the Learning Center Visit Report. It is vital for a consultant to remember to do this with each client.
9. The client should schedule a follow-up appointment if necessary or desired.
10. Experienced consultants may work with clients ourside their scheduled LC hours if they desire. All consultations outside of scheduled hours must be documented with Visit Reports for the consultant to recieve work credit.

Though every organization has its wrinkles, it is clear to me that the Learning Center is often a place of discovery for many students; I am proud to have been a part of its mission. --Senior Consultant

Guidelines for Writing Effective Learning Center Visit Reports

1. Learning Center Visit Reports serve many purposes for the Learning Center. The primary purpose of the reports is to communicate with clients, professors, advisors, and/or other Learning Center staff about the work that was done during a visit to Learning Center. Learning Center Visit Reports are the Learning Center's main mechanism of communication to faculty about our work. Careful documentation of consulting will assist professors in assessing the effect of the Learning Center on students' progress. Also, Learning Center Visit Reports serve as a record of the consultation for the client. A clearly summarized session can help reinforce what was learned and remind the client of any follow-up plans. Finally, Learning Center Visit Reports provide a data base for research. Research is only as meaningful as its data, thus effective reports are essential for research. Considering their purposes, the following points are proposed as guidelines for effective Learning Center Visit Reports:
2. Be descriptive and accurate. Describe the session so that a third party will be able to know the essentials of what was done. Describe identified problems and how they were addressed; however, include only the details that are pertinent. The most consistent problem with reports has been a lack of detail concerning the session. The professor receiving the report will likely assume only what was written was done and conclude that little was done.
3. Report what was done in the session in order of priority rather than chronological order. If activities related to problems of minor concern are listed first, the report might give the message that they were considered first priority.
4. Avoid grammatical and spelling errors. Be sure to spell the client's and professor's names correctly. It is especially important to avoid comma splices, incomplete sentences, and sentences without subjects. For example, the sentence "Worked on rewrite for paper, trying to smooth down rough edges" lacks a subject.
5. Write down the correct title and number of the course, the professor's name, the time of the appointment, and the session focus. Use the class schedule to double check the course information and use the faculty directory to find the professor's CPO. Write the professor's name and CPO on the back of the yellow copy.
6. Avoid committing libel. Libel is damaging someone's reputation or defaming their character in writing. An example would be writing that a student is lazy. Do not write anything that you would not want the client to read; have the client read over the report to make sure that it accurately describes the session. However, you must be honest about the client's performance; if the client has come poorly prepared or is resistant or indifferent, you should state these actions objectively.
7. Make judgments about client or client's work cautiously, objectively, and only when they can be useful for the professor or future consultants in assisting the client. Avoid expressing personal opinions and vague statements. There is a distinction between analyzing strengths and problems and making a vague judgment. An example of an effective statement of problems would be, "The main problems that we worked on were inconsistent usage of past and present verb tense and a vague ending that needed elaboration." Statements such as "The paper had poor grammar" or "The paper was fine" are ineffective and misleading to clients and professors.

*Remember to complete the Learning Center Visit Report after each session! Check to be sure the client has supplied all information in the top portion. Also, do not forget to have the client fill out an evaluation of the session (which is placed in the lock box by the client) before leaving the Learning Center.

Dealing with Clients

1. The consultant should never talk "down to" or "at" a student; s/he should establish the sincere rapport of one adult working with another. S/he should remember names and basic information about the client. This will foster an atmosphere more conducive to cooperative work. The consultant should be sure to listen as well as to talk; asking questions that will give the student a chance to participate actively in the session is a good way to get the student to open up. The consultant should work to discover what the client already knows and does well, and take this information to increase the client's awareness of the successful strategies that s/he is already using.
2. The consultant should get as much background on the client's learning and communication as possible. The Writing and Reading Strategies questionnaires are good ways for the consultant to start the conversation. For continuing clients, writing out answers to the questions may be useful. The consultant may interview the client using questions from these questionnaires or make up questions of his or her own. S/he should explain to the client that awareness leads to understanding which can then lead to further improvement.
3. The consultant should be ethical and professional. Neither the students nor their instructors should be discussed outside the Learning Center. If they are discussed within the Learning Center, the consultant should make sure the purpose for doing so is to better meet the student's needs. The consultant should be sure not to make negative comments about persons at any time; if a student complains about a particular instructor or consultant, the consultant should listen only and keep the confidences with which s/he is entrusted.
4. The consultant should never make derogatory comments about a student's language. Language is a part of one's cultural identity and should be respected. Standard English is not better, nor does it need to supplant a student's dialect. Rather, it is a necessary addition if the student wishes to succeed in the academic environment and the mainstream culture. The Learning Center simply asks its staff and its clients to be receptive and sensitive to the multi-cultural and multi-lingual environment in which we live.
5. A particular client may be defensive about visiting or being asked to visit the Learning Center. The consultant should make the client feel comfortable and offer him or her help which is relevant to success in school. Usually, a client will appreciate the Learning Center's efforts and return for additional help. The consultant should make it clear that the student is responsible for his or her own learning, but the consultant will be happy to assist him or her whenever help is desired. The Learning Center's goal is improvement, not instant success. Therefore, it is important for the client to understand that the consultant cannot predict grades or override decisions of the instructor.
6. Sometimes personalities are not compatible, and the consultant and client will be unable to work with each other. This is not a reflection of any defect in the consultant or the client. If, for any reason, the consultant cannot work with a particular client, the consultant must contact the Director and/or Senior Consultant to ask a different consultant to work with the client.
7. The consultant should explain ideas clearly and determine at what level to begin with each individual student. S/he should look for indications such as hesitation in response to a question. If the client hesitates, the consultant should:
• be patient, explain the concept in an easy-to-understand manner, without being condescending.
• think about his or her own struggles in a particularly difficult area and let the student know that s/he identifies with the problems the client is having.
• be an evaluator.
If one approach or type of material doesn't work, the consultant needs to switch to another, regardless of his or her personal preference. It is important to remember that the Learning Center is here to assist the students in learning--not just to take up their time. Consultants should always be looking for new methods and for ways to sharpen their skills. This allows consultants to be more flexible and more effective.
8. Patience is definitely a virtue when it comes to learning. Communication is a complex art for which there are few absolutes or easy answers. Therefore, the consultant should be willing to explain material, ideas, or concepts in different ways until s/he is relatively sure that the student understands. The consultant can check for understanding by asking the client to explain the concept or make resulting changes in his/her work.
9. Students often perform as their teachers expect them to perform. Teachers who believe that their students are intelligent and expect a great deal from them get better results. The consultant must honestly believe in the student clients. Therefore, it is important for the consultant to point out good aspects of the client's work and any improvement that s/he has made. In identifying areas that need additional work, the consultant should make clear his/her expectation that the client will be able to make the improvements.
10. The consultant should constantly try to build in success. This success often comes with working with students at their own level of understanding. If problems can be identified, students can often solve and reason things out for themselves. In each session, the consultant should try to find something positive about the work and then move to areas that need improvement. A consultant should be sincere, and never patronize his or her clients. S/he should speak matter-of-factly about both accomplishments and shortcomings.

In our sessions, I always say "as a reader" and acknowledge areas in her papers that are good. This attitude assures her of my own genuineness and makes her confident of her skills; it is always her paper and my role is to assist her in its improvement.--Consultant

Dealing with Dissatisfied Clients

Our client evaluations show that almost all of the students who visit Learning Center are more than satisfied with the service they receive. However, if at any time the consultant perceives that a client is dissatisfied, s/he should address the problem immediately. In order to find out why the client is dissatisfied, the consultant should ask the client questions about his/her expectations. If the student's dissatisfaction is a result of a misunderstanding of the Learning Center's mission and goals, the consultant should explain the goals carefully. The consultant should always be polite. S/he should not get defensive with a client; many times conflicts such as these are simply a result of a misunderstanding. If the client feels that s/he still needs help on a particular assignment, the consultant should offer to set up another appointment. After talking with a dissatisfied student, regardless of whether the problem was resolved, the consultant should inform the Director and a Senior Consultant immediately of the student's name and the reasons for dissatisfaction. If the consultant thinks that a follow-up is necessary or if the student still seems upset or doesn't understand the Learning Center's purpose and goals, the consultant might ask the Director to make an appointment with the client to discuss the problem. Any staff member who believes any client to be dissatisfied for any reason should inform the director at once.

Learning Center Work with Classes and Groups

Sometimes the Learning Center works with classes or other student groups. Teams from a class may visit Learning Center to work on an assignment. Consultants may visit a class to facilitate peer response groups or other projects.

Sometimes we are asked to give a short presentation (5-10 minutes) on the Learning Center and its services. More often, we are asked to give an interactive oral presentation/workshop (up to 50 minutes) on a particular area of communication (and to include a brief introduction to Learning Center) at the Learning Center or in the classroom. Consultants at the Learning Center are prepared to give presentations on developing reading, writing, listening, study, and time management skills. Consultants also lead 1-hour evening workshops on these topics.

Outlines and guidelines of the different types of presentations and workshops are available in the Presentation Notebook (located on the back desk by the Learning Center Visit Report tray).

General Guidelines for Presentations/Workshops

Before the Presentation/Workshop:

1. Talk with the professor. Even if you did not take the appointment for the presentation, call the professor and discuss it with him or her. Use this communication to see what the professor wants the presentation to include. Don't be shy; most professors are pleased to see consultants taking a leadership role. Probe to discover the focus and goals of the presentation. If the request is for Study Skills (for example), ask questions as to what kinds of skills in particular should be addressed and what outcomes the professor hopes to achieve. Ask if there are particular methods the professor wants us to employ and what role the professor plans to play in the session. Finding out what is expected allows the presentation to go more smoothly.
2. Get organized. Talk over your presentation/workshop with your colleagues. Make sure that all the presenters know what they are going to say and the order in which they will say it. Use the handouts for presentations that we have done in the past, or create your own plan (but write it down). Don't memorize, but plan a coherent structure emphasizing important points.
3. At least one day before the presentation/workshop, give an outline of your plan to the Presentation/Workshop Coordinator. (You can send it ccMail.)
4. Bring all the necessary supplies with you. Make sure you have brought any markers, paper, handouts, bookmarks, tape, or other materials you may need. You may have to order some supplies, so plan well in advance. If you do not have all of your materials available and ready, you may be perceived as unprofessional or incompetent. Be sure to take an attendance sheet and evaluation forms.

During the Presentation/Workshop:

1. Be professional. Be punctual and neatly dressed. Remember that whatever you do is a reflection of the Center when you are acting in this official capacity. Be careful what you say and try to put the students more at ease. Use language that they will understand, but don't use slang or other non-professional language. If they see you giving a good presentation, they will have more confidence in the Center and what we can offer them.
2. Always involve the students. Even if you ask for a show of hands or comments and questions, the involvement of the students is essential to getting any point across. If you just lecture to them, they will fall asleep. Pay attention to your audience. If they seem to be losing interest, take a new direction.
3. Try not to fill up silent times with your own speech. If the students have no comments, pass out index cards and have each person write a question or comment on it. Then, go through the cards and start the discussion from there. Or, you can go around the room and ask each person to respond to a question (with a different answer). This will force student participation.
4. Always ask for questions during and at the end of the presentation. If nothing else, it will get the students involved and interested. It can also lead to discussions which are a great way to further everyone's knowledge.
5. At the end of the presentation/workshop, distribute evaluations to requestor and participants. Collect these.

After the Presentation/Workshop:

Guidelines for the Introduction to the Learning Center Presentation

The introduction to the Learning Center is a short, simple, informative session. Consultants should do the introduction together in order to allow the students to get comfortable with you. The main goals are (1) to inform students of the various services that the Learning Center offers, (2) to acquire new clients and encourage continuing clients to keep returning, and (3) to make students feel at ease about coming to the Learning Center.

This exercise can be used in any class that requests it or as an introduction or conclusion to any other presentation that the Learning Center gives. The audience includes not only the students in the class, but also the faculty member who requested the presentation. It is important to be aware of the common misconceptions about the Learning Center in order to take this opportunity to dispel them. See the Learning Center brochure.

Bookmarks, Learning Center brochure, 2-3 selected handouts, Learning Center presentation response form.

10-15 minutes.

1. Thank the instructor for asking you to give the presentation.
2. Introduce yourself and your colleagues. Tell them your name and a little about you, so that they understand that you are one of their peers.
3. Ask any of the students if they have heard of or visited the Learning Center. If any of them have, ask them what they worked on.
4. Tell the students about consultants’ qualifications: they are successful students experienced in writing and speaking and studying, who have received special training in talking with others about assignments and ways to learn well.
5. Explain the Learning Center mission and philosophy of collaborative learning. Stress that consultants will not do the work but will ask questions and make suggestions to help the writer.
6. Tell the students about the main areas in which we tutor (reading, writing, speaking, listening and study skills). Stress the following points and any others you feel are pertinent:
• Individual attention
• Feedback on all stages of writing
• Help for all communicators (values of talking through ideas)
• Any major, any class (specialized classes)
7. Mention other resources the Learning Center provides – handouts, library, AVS room, tutoring carrels, computers, and programs (workshop series).
8. Give the location of the Learning Center, the extension and hours. Urge students to make appointments but note that we do take walk-ins when we have consultants available.
9. Ask for any questions.

Bibliography of Useful Materials

Books and Articles

Brannon, Lil. "On Becoming a More Effective Tutor." A Sourcebook for Writing Labs. Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1982. 105-118.

Capossela, Toni-Lee. Harcourt Brace Guide to Peer Tutoring. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1998.

Clark, Irene L. Writing in the Center: Teaching in the Writing Center Setting. Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1985.

"Pre-writing and The Writing Center: Helping Students Develop Ideas": 31-42.

"ESL Students and the Writing Center": 71-81.

"Interpersonal Communication": 21-30.

Gordon, Thomas. Leader Effectiveness Training. New York: Bantam, 1977.

"The No Lose Method: Turning Conflict into Cooperation": 174-216.

"Some Deeper Issues for Leaders": 256-264.

---. Teacher Effectiveness Training. New York: Wyden, 1974.

"Two Types of Verbal Communication and Their Effects on Students: A Catalogue": 80-89.

Harris, Muriel. "Individualized Diagnosis: Searching for Causes, Not Symptoms of Writing Deficiencies." A Sourcebook for Writing Labs. Glenview: & Scott, Foresman and Co., 1982. 105-108.

---. Teaching One to One: The Writing Conference. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1986.

Meyer, Emily and Louis B. Smith. The Practical Tutor. New York: Oxford UP, 1987.

"Promoting Fluency": 43-87.

"Helping Writers Form Concepts": 91-135.

"Sentence Level Errors": 159-76.

"Punctuation": 177-201.

"Working with Dialects and Patterns of Error": 202-21.

"Short Term Strategies for Improving Reading": 239-50.

"Causes of Spelling Errors": 286-89.

"Helping Writers Improve Vocabulary as They Read Texts": 300-01.

"Helping Writers Improve Vocabulary as They Write": 302-11.

Murphy, Christina, and Steve Sherwood. The St. Martin's Sourcebook for Writing Tutors. New York: St. Martin's P, 1995.

"Humor and the Serious Tutor." 48-55.

"Freud in the Writing Center: The Psychoanalytics of Tutoring Well." 43-47.

"Rethinking Writing Center Conferencing: Strategies for the ESL Writer." 96-103.

"Tutoring and the Paradigms of Writing Instruction." 2-4.

Roderick, John. "Problems in Tutoring." A Sourcebook for Writing Labs. Glenview: Scott, Foresman 1982. 32-39.

Sherwood Phyllis. "What Tutors Should Know." A Sourcebook for Writing Labs. Glenview: Scott Foresman, 1982. 101-09.

Journals/Newsletters

The Writing Lab Newsletter.

The Tutor's Guide*. Hamid Naficy, dir. Lincoln, 1986. MS

(In this videotaped series, fourteen lessons are taught on how to be a more effective consultant.)

“I am certain that my work at the Learning Center will greatly affect my work in the future. Already, I have a different approach to writing my own papers and helping my friends with theirs.”--Senior Consultant

The majority of clients come in to discuss different aspects of writing. Consultations may range from helping someone on a Stories journal to a senior research project. Consultants must feel confident, as well as knowledgeable, in all stages of the writing process. As consultants, we have an obligation to constantly study and improve our thought processes concerning writing. Students often dread or harbor negative feelings towards writing; thus, the Learning Center maintains a commitment to enable clients to feel a greater confidence about their strengths and, at the same time, work to improve areas of weakness.

The Writing Consultation

The following serves as a guide to help consultants conduct the writing consultation:

1. After greeting the client, having them complete a The Learning Center Student Visit Report, and choosing a suitable work site (see section in Working with Clients entitled The Session), you are ready to begin the consultation.
2. If the client is not anxious to begin work on a specific assignment, an informal discussion concerning the client's attitudes and habits toward the writing process is a good way to begin. If the client has come to work on a particular assignment, ask for the class, the assignment, and the due date. Even if the client is eager to begin, asking questions about the client's personal writing process will give a context for the consultation.
3. Ask the client where s/he is having the most difficulty. Listen to the client's ideas and problems. Determine what the client has accomplished, as well as where the client needs further improvement. Think in terms of strategies the client can adopt to address his/her needs in writing.
4. If the client is having trouble getting started, suggest a brainstorming activity such as freewriting, clustering, or a discussion of the topic. If the client has brought in a draft, ask her/him to read the paper aloud (or read it to the client). Higher order concerns (audience, purpose, thesis, focus, development of ideas) should maintain priority over lower order concerns (grammar, mechanics, punctuation, spelling). When the reading is finished, the consultant often needs to focus the client's attention on problems s/he is overlooking. Another major component of any consultation is the client's feedback. Ask the client to identify strengths and problem areas. Give feedback on areas the client indicates as problems.
5. Since we are helping the writer and not just the writing, it may be useful to turn to handouts, worksheets, or exercises in St. Martin's Handbook for understanding organization, development, or comma splices. Generally after such work, it is best to return to the client's assignment.
6. For further suggestions on consulting with a writing client, refer to The Practical Tutor or other books within the Learning Center library. Remember to invite the client back again, and suggest a follow-up appointment or permanent appointment to explore other areas of writing.
7. Remember to complete the Learning Center Student Visit Report at the end of the session. Please refer to the guidelines for writing this report in the "Working With Clients" section.

How Consultants Help Clients in Writing

1. We listen to ideas that clients have about writing assignments and help them limit and/or focus their ideas into a clear and strong topic.
2. We ask questions about ideas or reasoning to help clients clarify and/or develop their thoughts more fully and logically.
3. We explain structural and mechanical errors, allowing clients to proofread for these errors and correct them. It is often necessary to pinpoint some errors to clients so that they can have an example to follow. Consultants can indicate the type of errors and whether or not the errors seem to be a continual problem, but it is the responsibility of the client to find and correct them after s/he understands the specific problem.
4. We indicate techniques useful in searching for specific kinds of errors since the goal is to teach clients to become proficient readers and writers.
5. We give honest feedback about papers--how the tone or voice of the paper affects us, whether the introduction arouses interest, whether the support is convincing, or if we still have questions.

What Consultants Do Not Do

1. We do not provide topics or specific ideas. Consultants question clients to help them discover a topic and perform brain-storming exercises to generate ideas that will help them begin to organize.
2. We do not edit clients' papers; that is, consultants cannot point out all specific errors on the page and correct them for the student. That would be misleading to both the student and the teacher since it would show a competency that is really not present.
3. We do not rewrite sentences for students, but consultants can ask them to explain what they mean and write down their explanation. This often helps them to see more clearly the difference between what they mean and what they had previously written.
4. Consultants do not make changes on clients' papers. Changes or corrections on a paper should be made by the writer. Consultants may, however, make notes on other sheets of paper, to guide clients' attention to crucial areas.
5. We do not ever discuss or predict grades on papers. Consultants simply do not have the criteria (such as specific instructions given by the teacher) for judging the worth of a paper. Secondly, consultants do not discuss or criticize grades already given to papers.

*Note: For further information on the difference between tutor and editor, see the essay entitled "Minimalist Tutoring" in The St. Martin's Sourcebook for Writing Tutors.

“Miracles in consultations only occur if they are a joint effort and if there is adequate time. Clear, thoughtful writing is an ongoing process.”--Senior Consultant

Marks of Effective Essays

Items to Consider in Reviewing a Paper

1. Purpose/Voice-Effective essays have a clear purpose, distinctive voice, and an awareness of audience. They will typically express their purpose in a sharply-focused thesis statement. Even a descriptive paper should have a central idea. Ask writers what they are trying to prove. Be sure that the thesis is present in the introduction and that it is supported thoroughly in the body of the paper.
2. Content-Effective essays demonstrate thoughtful engagement with substantive ideas and an awareness of the complexity of the topics discussed. Mere assertions lack persuasive power and often display shallow or hasty thinking. Ask students why they believe unsupported statements that they have made are true. Ask if there are any facts, statistics, or examples to support those statements. If the client cannot support claims, suggest finding adequate support or re-evaluating claims. Be sure that the reasoning applied to the evidence is clear and logical.
3. Organization-Effective essays are logically-arranged and coherent, with effective beginnings (introduction), middles (body), and ends (conclusion), and clear transitions between paragraphs and major sections. Does the paper have a sound conclusion, wrapping it up and bringing it to a firm end, and not introducing new ideas that were not developed or suggested in the body of the paper.
4. Paragraphs-Effective essays express ideas in unified, coherent, well-developed paragraphs in which general statements are supported with specific details. Are there paragraphs that do not relate to the thesis? Ask what the relationship is; if there is none, suggest that irrelevant material be omitted. If there is a relationship, tell the student to add a topic sentence to indicate that relationship. If s/he has difficulty forming either, discuss theses and topic sentences.
5. Sentences-Effective essays are composed of complete, concise, grammatical sentences. In addition, they display varied sentence structure and length. When working with clients handle only one or two types of errors at a time, moving from most to least serious. Most serious errors are sentence structure errors such as fragments, run-ons, and comma splices; verb errors such as verb form and subject-verb agreement; or persistent errors such as commas, possessives, spelling, etc. Be alert for stylistic writing problems that are not errors but that detract from college-level writing; examples include: awkwardness, vagueness, simple sentence structures, and limited vocabulary.
6. Diction-Effective essays exhibit appropriate word choice and a firm sense of words' denotations and connotations.
7. Surface Features-Effective essays are free of spelling, punctuation, and capitalization errors. If a paper is not free of grammatical and spelling errors, explain to the client the type of error(s) and perhaps give the client appropriate exercises. If continuous errors are found in a paper, correct one as an example, and ask the student to find and correct the rest. Look over the corrected paper to see if the student has understood the explanations and is able to find and correct that particular error.
8. Use and Documentation of Sources-Effective essays that incorporate source materials:
• demonstrate an accurate understanding of the source material;
• skillfully use those materials to develop;
• cite sources correctly;
• exhibit the ability to distinguish between, and correctly use, quotations, paraphrases, and summaries;
• avoid plagiarism.
9. Remember that the role of a consultant is to enable a student to improve writing skills, not to turn in a single good paper. We point out strengths and short-comings in a paper and make suggestions as to how weaknesses can be improved; the new statements and corrections should be made by the writer rather than the consultant.

“Ask lots of questions. Keep assessing your client. Read the crucial sections in “St. Martin's” regarding style. Learn APA & MLA styles front to back.” --Consultant

Bibliography of Useful Materials

The Learning Center Tipsheets

Clustering

Commas and Comma Splices

How to Think and Act Like a Writer

How to Write Papers Good

Outlining

Revising Writing

The Thesis Statement

Writing an Essay: Introduction, Development, and Conclusion

Books

Bell, Arthur and Thomas Klammer. The Practicing Writer. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983.

Elbow, Peter. Writing With Power. New York: Oxford UP, 1981.

Harris, Muriel. Teaching One-to-One: The Writing Conference. Urbana: NCTE, 1986.

Harris, Muriel. Tutoring Writing. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1982.

Meyer, Emily, and Louise Z. Smith. The Practical Tutor. New York: Oxford UP, 1987.

Murphy, Christina and Steve Sherwood. The St. Martin's Sourcebook for Writing Tutors. New York: St. Martin's, 1995.

Poets & Writers Magazines

College Composition and Communication

College English

Journal of Developmental English

Writing Lab Newsletter

Reading is another area in which the Learning Center helps students develop. Typical reading clients include first year students, students in Western Traditions, ESL (English as Second Language) students, and Education Studies students. Listed below are some suggestions for identifying reading difficulties and helping clients learn reading strategies as well as a bibliography of The Learning Center resources.

Reading

Reading is a thought process that requires drawing from the knowledge that the reader has already acquired. Reading comprehension is not as simple as skimming over pages to get the main idea and stopping there. Reading comprehension requires the reader to ask questions and explore the material to get a better understanding of the author's original intent. Once the main idea is grasped, then the reader can be more analytical or critical about the subject matter being presented. A good reader works first to understand the reading and then to question, analyze, or use the ideas presented. Good reading means re-reading and tackling a text several times, knowing that each time the reader will learn more and deepen her/his understanding.

Distinguishing Reading Problems

Many times a client will not realize that her/his writing problem stems from a reading problem and therefore does not ask for help with reading. Yet as consultants we need to be sensitive to the client's reading needs. When working with a client on a writing assignment there are several common clues that tell you that the client has problems with reading comprehension. The following are some common problems that a consultant may notice:

• Problem: Inaccurate summary throughout paper, off base thesis statement
  Reason: Read too fast, poor concentration, did not look up vocabulary
• Problem: Inability to interpret the main theme or ideas of the reading
  Reason: Unable to make or recognize connections among sections of the text
• Problem: Does not understand meaning of the reading
  Reason: Passive reader, memorizes information
• Problem: Wrong interpretation of reading altogether
  Reason: Does/can not back up opinion with facts; difficulty making appropriate inferences
• Problem: Difficulty describing author's purpose
  Reason: Does not analyze author's writing style or question the author's opinion

After diagnosing a reading need, you might want to refer to the Reading Strategies Questionnaire (found in the handout rack) or the Reading Diagnostic Tests (found in the back filing cabinet with the CTBS materials) to discover more specific problems. You can also have the client read a short text out loud and then proceed with an oral or written test.

“My fondest memory of the Learning Center this semester was the day I, like several of my co-workers, stuffed Reading List bookmarks in the books at the College Bookstore. I thought this was a crazy idea at first. However, later in the semester, I was in the library and I noticed a friend checking out a book from the list. When I asked her about this she simply replied, "I read the first book and loved it. So, I decided to read all the books." I couldn't believe that one bookmark (that I put in a book) could persuade someone to read ten books.”--Office Staff

Reading in College

Throughout a student’s college career s/he is going to read a variety of books, from textbooks, novels, historical documents to literature. Some types of reading are harder than others and therefore require additional steps for comprehension. The following reading strategies can be used with different types of reading.

Reading a Textbook

SQ3R is a systematic approach to studying a textbook that allows the reader to be an active participant in the task of reading. The SQ3R stands for: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. The steps are as follows:

1. Survey the chapter by looking over the introduction, summary and chapter outline. Read over the headings and subheadings to get an idea of the chapter's contents and organization.
2. Pose and write down any questions you have about the chapter. Especially useful are questions that focus on main ideas, cause and effect relationships, etc..
3. Read the chapter in search of the answers to the questions.
4. Recite the questions and the answers mentally in order. Make sure to recite in your own words.
5. Review each question and answer after completing the chapter. This can include re-reading or writing a brief summary. Review need last only a few minutes.

The Learning Center provides a handout concerning the SQ3R method of reading. SQ3R is most useful for textbooks, but the general approach can be adapted to reading any written text.

Reading a Novel

When reading a novel, use the following steps:

1. Make comments or add questions in the margins; this note taking will help with focusing and becoming further involved with what is being read.
2. Underlining, highlighting or glossing (reading the explanatory material provided in text margins) are useful techniques, as well.
3. Because a novel takes more time to read than a short story or poem, it is important to remember your responses when reading each section. A good way to recall early reactions is to keep a journal.
4. During reading, or after finishing reading for the day, jot down thoughts, feelings, questions, or comments.
5. Try to make connections by analyzing the novel's plot, characters and settings. This recording of thoughts can also serve as a good basis for writing about the book at a later time.
6. When the entire book is finished, you should write down questions pertaining to the storyline, the opinions and/or actions of the characters, or the meanings behind the events that happened.

Reading a Document

U. S. Traditions and other courses rely on students being able to read and understand important historical documents. To get the most out of reading a document, use the following steps:

1. It is important to know and understand the background of the document and its author. By doing so, you can determine the importance of the document then and now.
2. Also, because old American English is sometimes hard to follow and understand, it would be helpful to read the document out loud to look for the thesis and to keep track of any questions you have while reading.
3. Look up key words in a historical dictionary such as the Oxford English Dictionary.
4. After completing the reading, you can refer to different translations and summaries of the document in order to receive a clearer understanding of the text.
5. As with any important reading, you should keep marginal notes for future reference.

“People’s personalities and learning styles differ. Consultants must be flexible and willing to recognize and try different approaches.”--Consultant

The Learning Center's Top 10 Good Reading Habits

1. Read in a well lit, comfortable place where you can remain attentive.
2. Read in a place with little to no distractions, such as the library, The Learning Center, or study lounges.
3. Preview the chapter or section.
4. Visualize what is being read.
5. Question what does not make sense.
6. Reread when something is confusing or seems to be missing support or facts.
7. Use systematic study-reading methods, such as SQ3R.
8. Try to figure out meanings of unknown words through context, but keep a dictionary nearby to use when necessary.
9. Associate new ideas with old ideas through comprehension and retention.
10. Locate thesis statements, topic sentences, and generalizations.

Bibliography of Useful Materials

The Learning Center Tipsheets

Characteristics of an Effective Reader

How to Read a Textbook Without Falling Asleep-SQ3R

How to Read Difficult Material Prior to Class Lectures

Underlining

Books

Dodge, Richard H. How to Read and Write in College. Cambridge: Harper and Row Publishers, 1986.

Harnadek, Anita E. Critical Reading Improvement. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1969.

Langan, John. Reading and Study Skills. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992.

Meyer, Emily and Louise Z. Smith. The Practical Tutor. New York: Oxford UP, 1987.

Milan, Deanne K. Developing Reading Skills. New York: Random House, 1983.

Wolf, Dennie Palmer. Reading Reconsidered: Literature and Literacy in High School. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1988.

Journals

Journal of Reading

Journal of Developmental Education

“Experiences of giving presentations before classes and staff meetings have taught me a significant amount about public speaking that will continue to be useful in many areas of my life.”--Senior Consultant

Consistently, more and more students are coming to the Learning Center for help concerning both individual and group oral presentations. Many of these students are Business majors who are required to give a variety of presentations. Some clients are from General Studies courses which involve different styles of presentations, including Reader's Theater, a format in which students are assigned parts from a book and dramatically read them aloud. the Learning Center offers help to all students with a variety of oral tasks: organization of presentation, delivery, non-verbal communication, visual aids, etc. A growing oral communication area is interviewing--both being interviewed and conducting an interview. Please refer to the Resume Notebook or the Oral Communication Notebook located on the course notebook shelf for further information on interviewing.

The Learning Center maintains resources concerning oral communication, such as: handouts, books in our library, audio-cassette tapes, and professional video tapes. These are good places to look when preparing for oral communication consultations. We also have video tapes of students giving practice presentations. Viewing practice presentation tapes is a good way for consultants as well as clients, to learn what to look for in an oral presentation.

Guidelines for an Oral Communication Consultation

1. Ask the client to complete the top portion of the Learning Center Visit Report.
2. Talk with the client (s) to determine the assignment, their progress, and their needs. Suggest reviewing the previous class's tape (if one is available) as an aid in preparation. Some clients need guidance in developing ideas and/or researching their topics; other want help with the structure and format of the presentation. Some clients are ready to practice their oral presentations and get feedback on delivery techniques.
3. The Learning Center has a video camera which can be used to tape students' practice presentations. Videotaping can be a powerful means of improving oral communication. From watching the videotape, many speakers can self-assess accurately their own presentations. Some clients however are not ready to be videotaped. In that case, do not present videotaping as the only strategy. Please refer to the resource section of the Staff Manual for further instructions on the operations and procedures of videotaping a presentation.
4. Complete the Client Visit Report form for each student, describing specifically what you helped the client with and what plans you have for follow-up.

What To Look For in a Speech

Is the speech appropriate for the audience for which it is intended?

Is the topic interesting and appropriate?

Is the speech organized (a distinct introduction, body, and conclusion)?

Can the purpose of the speech be clearly understood?

Are the arguments of the speech supported with specific examples, quotes, etc.?

Are the arguments presented in an interesting manner?

Is the delivery natural, not forced? The speaker should not read the speech.

Is the speaker talking either too fast or too slow?

Does the speaker have good diction?

Does the speaker project his/her voice?

Does the speaker fill pauses excessively with fillers such as "um", "O.K.", or "you know"?

Does the speaker have good eye contact with the audience?

Does the speaker use distracting body movements?

The Learning Center's Top Hints for Giving Good Presentations

1. Speak with confidence and authority. The inner image of a speaker is easily reflected to the audience. Therefore, if speakers are unsure, the audience will tend to see them in this manner. If speakers think of themselves as confident, then they tend to project that quality. Listeners tend to listen more attentively to those who are confident in their subject.
2. Let nervousness work to your advantage. Consider nervousness as "nature's way" of helping you be alert and ready. During the speech, try not to think about appearance an other minor details; rather, focus upon your presentation.
3. Get set before beginning. Details such as overheads, visual aids, microphone adjustment, etc. should be taken care of before beginning the speech.
4. Establish and maintain a relationship with your audience before speaking. Greeting the group, for example, helps the audience warm up to the speaker. The first few minutes of a presentation sets the mood.
5. Sound conversational, not as if reading or delivering a memorized speech. Presentations should be delivered with spontaneity, enthusiasm, and sincerity. Be professional, choosing language appropriate to your subject and audience.
6. Avoid fillers such as "ah", "so, ya know", "uh", and "well". They distract from the speaker's words and often result in the audience focusing on the number of fillers rather than the presentation itself.
7. Speak so the audience can easily hear you. Find a good balance in volume and speed.
8. In a group presentation, be sensitive to group dynamics. When others in the group are speaking, be attentive. When you are speaking, acknowledge others in the group.

Bibliography of Useful Materials

The Learning Center Tipsheets

32 Recommendations for Giving Presentations

Nervousness

Planning and Revising Checklist: Individual Oral Reports

Shyness and Speech Anxiety

Tips for Speaking

Lucas, Stephen E. The Art of Public Speaking. New York: Random House, 1983.

Osborne, Michael and Suzanne Osborne. Public Speaking. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1991.

Stewart, Charles and William B. Cash. Interviewing: Principles and Practices. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1988.

Journals

Communication Education

Too often, people equate oral communication with only the act of speaking. However, listening is also an essential component of oral communication. One of the best ways to help a client is to be a good listener. Good listening skills from both the consultant and client will not only help establish a positive, professional consultant/client relationship, but they will also help the consultant identify the areas of communication in which the client needs or wants to work. Sometimes, a client may think s/he has other problems, when in fact s/he may need to work on listening skills.

“Of the skills to which I have been personally attuned this semester, listening has been my focus. I have noticed myself in the past listening, but not always catching everything that was said. I was always too busy forming a rebuttal of some sort, or questions to clear up certain points. As this semester draws to a close, I feel that I no longer miss parts of the conversations. Even my education professor has noticed during class discussions that I am listening to what is being said and to what is not being said.”--Office Assistant

Types of Listening

In order to become a better listener, it may be helpful to be knowledgeable about different types of listening skills. The following information is a useful but not exhaustive list of varied listening competencies.

Comprehensive Listening

Comprehensive listening skills involve listening to learn, understand, and remember new information. College students especially use these skills in studying, remembering instructions, understanding lectures, or recalling assignments (Trenholm 337).

Evaluative Listening

This type of listening is used to make critical and logical decisions about what is being stated. For example, when listening to a persuasive speech on a controversial topic, evaluative listening should be used in order to make a decision about the validity of the speech.

Appreciative Listening

Listening to the radio, a concert, a play, or a myriad of other sounds just for the sheer pleasure of it constitutes appreciative listening. It is possible to listen appreciatively on three different yet parallel levels: physical, ideological, and technical. The physical level involves moving the body to the harmony or rhythm of the sound. The ideological approach incorporates a search for ideas or mental concepts in order to understand the meaning of the presentation. Listening at the technical level involves paying attention to the rhythmic patterns of the sound in order to understand technically how the sound is put together. Listening to a presentation on this level takes years and years of practice.

Guide to Improve Listening Skills

A lot of people assume that they are good listeners. They say listening comes to them in a natural and passive manner. However, listening is being equated with hearing in this assumption. Hearing is a natural unconscious function; listening is not. For example, being in a lecture hall and hearing the professor's lecture does not necessarily mean that listening took place. According to the narrator of Power of Listening, a videotape which can be found in the Learning Center library, most people remember only 25% of information that is related to them by auditory means. Therefore, it is important to remember that training is not necessary to hearing, but it is vital to listening.

Barriers to Effective Listening

1. The listener already has a prior expectation of what the lecturer will say or what the speech will contain.
2. The listener thinks the speech is too complex to understand.
3. The listener believes the speech is too simple or boring to bother listening to.
4. The listener listens only for the main point of the speech.
5. The listener begins to daydream.
6. The listener thinks the speech is irrelevant to his or her life.
7. The listener is unable to listen due to conditions of the environment, such as room temperature. (Power of Listening)

“The work I've done at the Learning Center has enabled me to grow as an individual, a student, and as an employee. My listening skills have improved, and I'm learning the art of asking the right question at the right time. This helps not only in consultations, but also in other areas, such as classes and interpersonal relationships.”--Consultant

Active Listening

When active listening is taking place, the listener's mind activates itself to receive and sort all the information being presented. Active listening involves taking in new information, checking it against what is already known, determining what is important, searching for or making categories in which to store the information, predicting what is coming next, and evaluating and questioning what has been heard. Developing strong listening skills is not an easy task, but it is an essential component to becoming a good communicator. It takes instruction, conscious reinforcement, and practice to become an active listener. The following questions, resources, and helpful hints may be useful in diagnosing and addressing listening problems:

Questions

1. How much information can you remember after a television broadcast?
2. Can you pick out the main points of a speech?
3. Can you understand and remember oral directions?
4. How good are you at discovering and understanding peoples' feelings?
5. Can you distinguish between a good business deal and a scam?
6. Can you hear differences in instruments in a band or symphony?
7. Can you pick out arguments and evidence in a political speech? (Roach & Wyatt 5)

Helpful Hints

1. Concentrate. Try to forget about the stuffy room or uncomfortable chair.
2. Open your mind. Give the speaker time to say what s/he has to say without jumping to conclusions or becoming defensive.
3. Show the speaker you are listening. Ask clarification questions and/or paraphrase what the speaker says.
4. Note speaker bias. Distinguish between fact and opinion and note when the speaker tells only half the story.
5. Pay attention to the content. Listen to what the speaker has to say, not the way s/he looks or speaks.
6. Relate ideas. Use the information from the speech and relate it to your own life and personal experiences.

Diagnosing Listening Skills

In order to help a client develop his/her listening skills, the consultant may need to diagnose the client's listening problems. In other words, s/he may ask the client specific questions about his/her experiences in the classroom setting and then give him/her a listening test.

“I listen to my clients and try to address their needs in a manner that wholly satisfies them and results in a better paper.”--Consultant

Questions about the Classroom Setting

1. What do you do while the professor lectures?
2. What do you do during a class discussion?
3. How often do you speak during a class discussion?
4. How do you feel about the topic the professor is presenting?
5. What are you thinking while the professor lectures?
6. Do you take notes on the lecture or during the class discussion? (The consultant may ask the client to see the notes.)
7. In what kind of atmosphere do you listen? In other words, is the room temperature stuffy, cool, sweltering, etc.?
8. Where do you sit in the room?
9. What is the noise level of the room?

Listening Skills Test

The consultant may have the client listen to a videotape, the radio, a cassette tape, a story, etc. After the client listens to the material, the consultant may ask the client specific questions in order to help the client develop strengths and diminish weaknesses in listening. For example, after the consultant reads a story to a client, the consultant may ask the client to answer specific questions about the book. Some of the questions the consultant could ask are as follows:

1. Summarize the story in your own words.
2. Who is the main character?
3. Give a description of the character.
4. What is the conflict of the story?
5. Where is the story set?
6. Relate to your own life some of the ideas of the book.
7. Tell one thing about a supporting character.
8. How did the book make you feel? Why?

Bibliography of Useful Materials

The Learning Center Tipsheets on Listening

Basic Listening Skills (for informative and critical listening purposes)

DO'S And DONT'S of Listening

Listening- A Challenging Skill

Books

Bostrom, Robert. Listening Behavior: Measurement and Application. New York: Guilford, 1990.

Covey, Stephen R. The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal Change. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.

Lanham, Md. pub. Listening in Everyday Life: A Personal and Professional Approach. New York: UP Of America, 1991. (Hutchins Library)

Merker, Hannah. Listening. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.

Roach, Carol A. and Nancy J. Wyatt. Successful Listening. New York: Harper and Row, 1988.

Tannen, Deborah. You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Ballantine, 1990. (Hutchins Library)

Thomas, Gordon. Leader Effectiveness Training (L.E.T.). Toronto: Bantam Books, 1979.

Trenholm, Sarah and Arthur Jensen. Interpersonal Communication. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1988.

Journals

Journal of International Listening Association

Listening Newsletter

Videotapes

Critical Thinking: How to Evaluate Information and Draw Conclusions. pub. Guidance Association, 1988. (Media Services)

Learning to Listen and Communicate Effectively. pub. Guidance Associates, 1991. (Media Services)

*Power of Listening. Dir. Ibby Smith. McGraw-Hill, 1978.

Although somewhat dated, Power of Listening outlines and explains how one can better his or her listening skills. The consultant may use the plethora of information within the video to help a client improve his or her listening skills.

*This particular video can be found in our Learning Center library; hence the annotation.

“[At the Learning Center] I have learned that working with and helping clients is a two-way street: consultants help to teach but they learn at the same time.” --Consultant

Students often come to the Learning Center to improve their study skills. The topic of study skills covers a broad spectrum. This extensive topic may include developing strategies for studying, note-taking skills, reading comprehension, and test-taking preparation, to name a few. Clients may include students from Psychology 100, Natural Science, various Nursing classes, or other study-intensive courses. Clients may also be first year students who need help in time management or reading comprehension. Non-traditional students often need help in learning how to adapt to the college environment after an absence from school. Some clients come to the Learning Center for help with test anxiety or nervousness. Overwhelmed with nervousness, clients forget what they have studied and do not do as well as they should.

To help these clients, the Learning Center has many resources pertaining to study skills including: handouts, books in the Learning Center library, and worksheets in the filing cabinet.

The Study Skills Consultation

1. Ask the client to show you his/her class notes, schedule, etc. so that you can get an idea of the client's study habits.

Meyer and Smith, authors of The Practical Tutor, suggest an informal yet comprehensive interview during the first session to determine the specific area(s) of concentration. An informal interview often pinpoints the direction that a session might take. For example, difficulty in test-taking might reveal a deeper problem such as reading comprehension. The authors list some appropriate questions that begin a discussion on study skills.

• What is your schedule like this semester? How many courses are you taking and when are you free?
• Besides school, what other responsibilities do you have?
• What sort of procedures do you follow when you study?
• What do you hope to gain from these consulting sessions? (Meyer and Smith 6).

Allow clients enough time to answer the questions completely and fully. It is perfectly acceptable to use the first session as a way to discover patterns in studying, test-taking, note taking, etc. and then continue from there. Let the client know that study skills usually demand more than a single consultation; it's a good idea to plan a series of appointments.

2. A discussion of previous or current study habits and techniques may indicate the focus of the session, and the client may want to review a method of studying with you. Consequently, it is usually helpful to review a method of studying with the student and then allow time to practice on an actual text. Using the client's own notes, texts, resources, etc. is quite helpful; it allows review of correct strategies and suggestions of new ones. Taking good notes is a reliable source of help for understanding important material. Consultants want to enable clients to develop a style of note-taking that works best for them.
3. After discussing problematic areas, as well as possible solutions, consultants can enable clients to be better prepared for tests by discussing possible test strategies and practicing with standardized or essay tests that The Learning Center has on file. Some professors will even let us work with actual exams to help students. All actual exams must be kept confidential and secure and should be returned to the professor after the session(s).
4. Remember to fill out a The Learning Center Visit Report for each student, describing specifically how the client was helped as well as his/her future plans.

Study Skills Hints

The following are hints to help clients develop good study habits, take good lecture notes, manage test nervousness, and take tests.

The Learning Center's Top Ten Hints for GOOD STUDY HABITS

Note: More hints are available on the Learning Center's Handout link.

1. Know the requirements for the course. The syllabus should be kept for the entire semester because it not only includes the assigned materials and due dates, but it also contains the instructor's policies and rules.
2. Go to class. Regular class attendance is one of the most important tools to learning. If unable to attend class, call the instructor with the reason. Also, call a friend to get the notes and/or assignments from the missed class.
3. Plan! Write down all of the assignments in a weekly planner or calendar. Schedule social time around homework, not vice versa.
4. Study subjects according to their difficulty--hardest first, easiest last. It will be easier to do calculus before P. E. homework because the mind is not as tired.
5. Allot enough time for each assignment and BE REALISTIC! For instance, avoid scheduling time to study a difficult subject during lunch because the time is short and there will probably be more interruptions. Allot enough time to sleep. A rested mind works much better than a tired one.
6. Never ignore some classes in an attempt to catch up in other classes. This only causes all classes to suffer.
7. Study in a comfortable place, but avoid places with a lot of distractions. Dorm rooms may be a great place to socialize, but if the phone is ringing, the radio is on, and people are coming in and out, it may not be the best place to study. Study lounges in residence halls, Hutchins Library, or The Learning Center might be better places to study.
8. Make time for relaxation. Relaxation enables people to retain more, get more accomplished, and feel better. Short breaks between hours of study are beneficial. Remember to keep a balance between study and relaxation (i.e. 45 minutes of study and 15 minutes of break).
9. Ask for help! Professors, R.A.s, The Learning Center, roommates, friends, the Business Lab, and the Math and Language Labs are all great resources for help in studying. Roommates and friends are usually good at quizzing. Come to The Learning Center for help with your assignment or to receive additional study hints. Talk to your professors, and get to know them; they are usually glad to help students who are trying. It is okay to ask for help; it only reveals a desire for improvement.
10. Procrastination only hinders learning. Procrastination or dreading the subject only results in making studying that much more difficult. Stick to a schedule.

The Learning Center's Top Ten Hints for Taking GOOD LECTURE NOTES

Note: More hints are available as a handout on the Learning Center Handouts for Communication and Learning link

1. Date notes. Begin each day's notes with a heading that includes the date and topic of lecture to be covered. Dating notes helps to indicate the proper order and maintains better organization of the material.
2. Use an appropriate notebook to write and keep notes. A three-ring binder may be helpful because it allows for all the material to be in one place.
3. Improve listening skills. Good listening skills during lectures can be improved by reading assigned or related material prior to the lecture. Sit in a place where you are able to both see and hear the teacher. Avoid distractions such as talkative students or gazing out a nearby window. Daydreaming will also hinder good note-taking skills; thus, if a thought persists, write it down and come back to it after class.
4. Take well-organized notes. Major thoughts should stand out clearly. Underlining or circling major points is helpful. Details or characteristics should be listed under major thoughts or points.
5. Listen for major thoughts or points. Listen for phrases such as "Now, I'm going to discuss . . . " or "Another major point is . . ." These are good indicators of important information and new topics.
6. Listen for details. Statements such as "Sociologists identify four types of families" or "Let's examine three tragic effects of the Civil War" are indicators of details. Listen for oral clues such as these and make sure all points are mentioned in the notes.
7. Watch the chalkboard. If a professor takes time to write something on the board, then it is probably important. Tables, charts, diagrams, mathematical formulas, important vocabulary, people's names, and dates are usually important information to include in notes.
8. Review notes after class. Correct any misspellings and fill in any missing sections in the notes. Reading notes daily will make them more familiar.
9. Use abbreviations in class notes. It is impossible to write down the lecture word for word. Standard as well as non-standard abbreviations will shorten the task. Commonly used abbreviations include: w/ = with, w/o = without, bet. = between, etc.
10. Follow the text. If a text is used, go along in the book and highlight the sections that the professor discusses.

The Learning Center's Hints for Managing TEST NERVOUSNESS

Note: More hints are available as a handout on the Learning Center Handouts for Communication and Learning page.

1. Understand that some nervousness is beneficial. A little nervousness keeps test takers mentally alert and active. However, instead of being controlled by nervousness, students can control their anxiety by reminding themselves that they have studied, know the material, and are prepared.
2. Arrive early and have a few minutes to compose yourself before the test. Rushing into class late, grabbing an exam, and hunting for a pencil invite feelings of nervousness. It is more productive to arrive early and prepare materials--before the test is handed out.
3. Think positively. Research has shown that a positive attitude contributes to achievement. Students who think they are going to do well on an exam usually do (if they have studied).
4. Eat the right food before the exam. Before an exam, it is better not to gorge on foods high in carbohydrates such as cokes and potato chips. Foods such as these have a negative effect upon mental alertness and promote drowsiness. Foods low in fat and high in protein such as cereal with milk, chicken or turkey, and eggs encourage alertness.
5. Get a good night's sleep. A well-rested test-taker usually does better on exams than a tired test-taker, even if they both know the same information.

The Learning Center's Top Ten Hints for TAKING TESTS

Note: More hints are available as a handout on the Handouts for Communication and Learning page.

1. Survey the test. Before answering any questions, study the make-up of the test. Discern what types of questions must be answered, whether questions are printed on one or both sides of the page, and where answers must be placed. Then read test directions carefully; they might be different from what is expected.
2. Listen to everything the professor says. It is absolutely essential to listen to everything the professor says because s/he may explain confusing directions or typographical errors.
3. Plan test-taking time. Often there is too little time to answer all test questions. Look over the test and project how much time is needed for each section. Be sure to devote enough time to questions with high point values .
4. Answer the easy questions first. If there are any easy questions, answer them first to receive credit. Answering the questions that are easiest first builds confidence and prepares you to tackle the more difficult ones.
5. Unless penalized for guessing, try to answer every question. Tests that penalize for guessing are becoming less common, so unless the professor indicates that wrong answers will be penalized, always answer every question somehow.
6. Check all answers. Be sure that the test is fully completed. However, when checking true-false or multiple choice questions, be slow to change them; avoid making changes simply due to nervousness. Students who change answers because they are nervous about their original answers tend to change correct answers to incorrect answers!
7. Avoid hurrying. Try not to be intimidated by other class members who finish early and leave the room. Make use of available time by checking answers or adding more examples or illustrations to essay question answers.
8. Look for questions that help answer other questions. Be alert to questions that might help answer other questions. For example, one question might ask to name two scientific thinkers who influenced the work of Charles Darwin, while another might ask to explore the ways in which the evolutionary theory of Lamarck affected Darwin's thinking. In this case, the second question gives a partial answer to the first.
9. Learn from incorrect responses. When tests are returned, analyze incorrect answers to understand why they were missed. Reasons for missing questions can range from not taking accurate notes or not reviewing class notes enough to not planning test-taking time carefully. Analyzing missed questions should help you to do better on future tests.
10. Be well-rested. Being both mentally and physically rested enables students to do their best.

Bibliography of Useful Materials

The Learning Center Tipsheets

Coping with Stress

Essay Exams

A Good Essay Answer

Managing Time Effectively

Some Basic Hints in Good Study Habits

Taking Notes (From the Underground)

Books

Adams, Royce. Making the Grade. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Co., 1992.

Bruce W. The College Survival Guide: Hints and References to Aid College Students. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1989.

Johnson, Ben E. Doing It Right: Improving College Learning Skills. Lexington, MA: DC. Heath & Co., 1992.

Langan, John. Reading and Study Skills. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1992.

Sotiriou, Peter. Integrating College Study Skills. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1984.

Journals

Journal of Developmental Education

M. Elizabeth Sargent Wallace, associate professor of English at Western Washington University, is a professor of literature who has not formally studied the teaching of writing. In "How Composition Scholarship Changed the Way I Ask for and Respond to Student Writing," published in Modern Language Association's Profession 94 (34-40), Wallace reflects on her reading in composition studies. She identifies ten research-based guidelines that teachers can follow to help students write with more intellectual engagement and energy. Following is a summary of these guidelines plus selections from Wallace's Works Cited list.

1. Put off formal papers, grading, and evaluation as long as possible. "We need enough writing of different types written under enough different conditions to give us a sense of each student's mind and voice and relation to language" before making evaluations. For students to explore their abilities to think in language, they need "conditions of safety" (36-37).
2. Help students not only with prewriting and rewriting but also with writing itself. Allow time for composing in class; write with your students; interrupt students' non-productive composing processes with bursts of nonstop exploratory writing.
3. Intervene at strategic points in the writing process. One important point comes before the first draft, when the student is deciding what parts of his/her exploratory writing should become part of the draft. Without a teacher's intervention, students may throw out their most striking ideas and insights, thinking them inappropriate for the academy.
4. Use modes and genres (comparison/contrast, definition, etc.) as ways of thinking and discovering, ways of deepening reading, rather than as set forms for whole papers. Use of mechanical, rigid forms may lead to early closure, prevent genuine engagement and inquiry.
5. Because writing is social and collaborative, include in the classroom occasions for students and teacher to write with and to each other.
6. Ask students to read books or articles about writing in which real writers discuss their own ways of approaching and struggling with writing.
7. Analyze patterns of student error; diagnose writing problems based on that analysis. "Error is the path into the student's mind.... Penalizing students for taking risks with language--because the level of error will always increase when students try to do something new or more complex than they have done before--is counterproductive" (38).
8. Look carefully into the structure of your writing assignments; consider whether you are asking students to make cognitive moves for which they are unprepared. Different disciplines have different modes of learning and different conventions for sharing that learning; students need to be taught how to negotiate these variations.
9. Ask students to reflect on the writing process. "Real strides are taken when students become conscious of choices, conscious of processes that were previously mysterious and out of their control...If [students] become reflective practitioners, they have strategies to choose from" to meet the demands of writing (39).
10. Teach the whole writing process, including the preparation of the final copy; teach editing and proofreading. Whatever steps of the writing process you slight in class, students will slight too.

Selected Works Cited

Bartholomae, David. "The Study of Error." College Composition and Communication 31 (1980): 253-69.

Belanoff, Pat, Peter Elbow, and Sheryl Fontaine. eds. Nothing Begins with N: New Investigations of Freewriting. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1991.

Bridwell-Bowles, Lillian. "Discourse and Diversity: Experimental Writing within the Academy." College Composition and Communication 43 (1992): 349-68.

Calkins, Lucy. The Art of Teaching Writing. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1986.

Elbow, Peter. "Reflections on Academic Discourse: How It Relates to Freshmen and Colleagues." College English 53 (1991): 135-55.

Writing with Power. New York: Oxford UP, 1981.

Emig, Janet. "Writing as a Mode of Learning." College Composition and Communication 28 (1977): 122-28.

Fulwiler, Toby. "Provocative Revision." Writing Center Journal Spring 1992: 190-204.

Herrington, Anne, and Charles Moran, eds. Writing, Teaching, and Learning in the Disciplines. New York: MLA, 1992.

Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. New York: Macmillan, 1991.

Lanham, Richard. Revising Prose. 2nd ed. New York: Scribner's, 1987.

Macrorie, Ken. Telling Writing. Rochelle Park: Hayden, 1970.

Murray, Donald. The Craft of Revision. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart, 1991.

Noguchi, Rei R. Grammar and the Teaching of Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1991.

Odell, Lee. "The Process of Writing and the Process of Learning." College Composition and Communication 31 (1980): 42-50.

Phelps, Louise Wetherbee. "Practical Wisdom and the Georgraphy of Knowledge in Composition." College English 53 (1991): 863-85.

Polanyi, Michael. Personal Knowledge. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1962.

Reither, James A. "Writing and Knowing: Toward Redefining the Writing Process." College English 47 (1985):620-28.

Rose, Mike. "Remedial Writing Courses: A Critique and a Proposal." College English 45 (1983): 109-28.

Schon, Donald A. Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey, 1987.

Shaughnessy, Mina P. Errors and Expectations. New York: Oxford UP, 1977.

Stafford, William. Writing the Australian Crawl. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1978.

Walvoord, Barbara E., and Lucille P. McCarthy. Thinking and Writing in College: A Naturalistic Study of Students in Four Disciplines. Urbana: NCTE, 1990.

For copies of the articles and books Wallace draws on, please contact Libby Jones.

By Libby Jones

"Writers may not be special--sensitive or talented in any usual sense. They are simply engaged in sustained use of a language skill we all have." --William Stafford, Writing the Australian Crawl, 20

"Here's my paper, but don't expect much--I'm just not a writer." How many of us have heard--and perhaps said--these words? Of course, we all write: we all use written language to recall things, inform others, express ourselves, and so on. Yet many people--particularly students new to college-level writing--do not think of themselves as writers. Those who believe they are not writers usually think and act in ways that limit their success in writing. In contrast, people who think of themselves as writers are usually better able to deal with writing's demands. Understanding both sets of beliefs and their corresponding behaviors can help teachers to encourage student writers to take more productive, rather than more damaging, directions. Following are five key writers' behaviors, with suggestions for helping student writers to understand and to practice these behaviors as a means of becoming better writers.

1. Writers write frequently.

Writers believe that writing itself is a good and useful teacher--thus the more you write, the more you learn to write. In Annie Dillard's words: "the page, the page, that eternal blankness, the blankness of eternity which you cover slowly, ...the page in its purity of possibilities...: that page will teach you to write" (The Writing Life 58-59). While reluctant writers are stingy with their writing, writing only when necessary and writing only the minimum, those who behave as writers write a lot, developing a habit of writing.

Changing the behavior: Requiring or encouraging students to write frequently, particularly in open and safe formats such as freewriting or journaling, can help students to appreciate the benefits of frequent writing and thus to value writing more highly. These assignments need not be time-consuming to grade--in fact, they do not even have to be read. Simply verifying that the students are continually writing is sufficient.

2. Writers are patient.

"The landscape of the writer is the mind." --Natalie Goldberg , Long Quiet Highway, 69

Writers believe that writing is alive, reflecting a mind at work. They experience writing as a process of discovery and as a valuable discipline. Thus they are patient with writing, willing to work a long time on a piece, willing to let the subconscious work on the writing. Writers realize that they are writing even when they hold no pencil, and they give themselves time to set aside a draft, to let ideas and words ferment. When they are writing, they are mindful of the surprises suggested by the word, the line, or the draft, mindful of connections, of potential, of possibility; they see possibility as an opportunity for excellence.

In contrast, reluctant writers experience writing as dead, a mode of delivery only. Rather than valuing the writing, these writers value only the goal the writing achieves: the demonstration of knowledge acquired, a reward (a good grade), or the removal of an obstacle (a completed requirement). Thus they are impatient with writing, seeing it as a necessary evil. As they write, they are mindful of possibility--but as an opportunity for failure, for displaying stupidity, for violating the norms. Surprises are disagreeable rather than promising. These writers are mindful of limitations: the narrow frame of the assignment ("What exactly do you want me to write?"), their own clumsiness with language.

Changing the behavior: Teachers can help student writers see the untapped potentials in their writing. Digressions, partially-explored ideas, seeming contradictions, and other oddities that are not acceptable in finished writing may, in early drafts, be signs of potentially valuable directions and insights. Making oral or written coaching comments on drafts and expecting or requiring students to revise (not simply correct) their writing can reveal the benefits of taking time to let writing deepen. Teachers can also work to recognize the point in a writing project when the writer is finished, though the project may not be. Rather than demanding immediate further work, the teacher may better serve the student (and the project) by agreeing to set aside the piece for the writer to return to later in the term. The quality of the later work usually confirms the value of the student's (and teacher's) patience.

3. Writers produce bad writing.

Mindful of the possibilities of language and thought, writers are willing to take risks in their writing--and genuine risks do sometimes result in trash. Writers don't expect always to write well. They view their bad writing as a means to good writing. They may even deliberately write badly in order to experience a particular voice or approach for what they can learn from it. When writers find they have done bad writing, they are willing to toss it out.

In contrast, reluctant writers hate ever to write badly. They see bad writing as a confirmation of failure, a sign that they should quit writing. They work very hard not to make mistakes in thought or word. They often relentlessly edit even their private writing, losing vital ideas and words in the process. Thus their finished writing, however free from errors, is often lifeless. Reluctant writers are also reluctant to let go of their bad writing, since even it was so hard to come by.

Changing the behavior: Teachers can give permission for some bad writing: by ignoring grammatical/stylistic errors in early drafts, by showing early drafts of their own writing to students (including all the paragraphs and pages that got deleted from the final draft), or even by inviting writers occasionally to break rules and to write the worst responses they can to the question. By requesting prewriting or "discovery" drafts, teachers send the message that writers don't expect to get it right the first time. Teachers can also praise a student's ability to discard the first half of the draft in order to shape the paper around the insight that emerged in the second half--and point out that the bad first half was probably a necessary condition for the good second half.

4. Writers welcome feedback.

Writers know that feedback comes in many forms, from many places, and in many degrees of usefulness. They know that feedback may be unclear, misplaced, irrelevant, or even hurtful, and they don't always enjoy getting it. But they view feedback as a means to the end of better writing, recognizing that they are still in charge of their writing, and they learn how to listen for the truth in the feedback, however disguised that truth may be. They view the givers of feedback as allies, even when those allies say things writers would prefer not to hear. From their readers, they prefer any sort of feedback, whatever its quality, to silence.

Reluctant writers, on the other hand, resent feedback in general and negative feedback in particular. Feedback, even positive feedback, is a sign that someone has noticed and perhaps valued the writing, placing unwanted explicit or implicit demands on the reluctant writer to continue to write. Givers of feedback are not allies but invaders, judges, cops--people whose object is punishment. An instance of positive feedback is evidence only that they've escaped the gun this time.

Changing the behavior: Though student writers benefit from a reader's recognition of the strengths of their writing, giving only compliments will not change their understanding of the role of feedback in writing. Depending on the type and stage of assignment and the writers' needs, teachers should vary the levels, modes, sources, and kinds of feedback--global, local, written, oral, teacher, peer, response-based (how a reader experiences the writing), criterion-based (how the writing measures up to a standard). Teacher time spent occasionally in setting up and coaching peer response groups, rather than in writing extensive comments on individual essays, can be effective in providing writers with a variety of reactions to their work. Then teachers can help the writers to understand and use the sometimes-contradictory responses to improve their writing. Using the Learning Center’s "Sample Peer Evaluation Sheet" (from Peter Elbow's Writing With Power) is a good way to begin.

5. Writers tolerate discomfort.

"Anything that isn't writing is easy." --Jimmy Breslin, quoted in Winokur's Writers on Writing, 342

Writers know that writing isn't easy. Regardless of how much writing they have done and how well that writing has been received, they know that the next writing task will require massive energy in defining the subject and the audience, finding and creating material, designing a useful structure, including voices appropriately, and selecting from a repertoire of strategies to express meanings. Yet despite the continuing difficulties of writing and their expectations of experiencing frustration, pain, disgust, even hatred when they write, writers have faith that the writing will happen. They even relish the complexity of balancing the demands of focus, material, audience, voice, purpose, and language in each writing task.

Reluctant writers also find writing difficult, but they believe that if only they were better writers, writing would be easy. Thus they try to make writing as easy as possible, looking always for formulas, simplifying the task or addressing only part of it, seizing the first possible approach and clinging to it, refusing ever to try again a previously unsuccessful approach. If they get stuck, they give up. This drive for ease in writing--supported by a culture which generally equates ease with success and touts simplistic solutions to complex problems--often precludes the behaviors that result ultimately in good writing.

Changing the behavior: Teachers can explode the myth that writing is easy. They can realize, and communicate to student writers, the fact that the next assigned paper, whatever its similarity to the one just completed, will not be problem-free for students. Teachers should make assignments early enough to give students time to overcome stuck-points; they can help student writers to increase their repertoire of strategies for generating and exploring ideas, creating structures, and inviting other voices into the conversation. Teachers can also reward student writers' willingness to take on difficult and uncomfortable writing tasks that stretch their abilities.

I believe that pursuing the practices I've outlined can do much to help students act and think like writers. But let me conclude with two cautionary notes. The first is that in reality, the boundaries between writers and reluctant writers are not sharply drawn. (Even among writers, the pull toward reluctance is strong.) I've outlined the contrasting beliefs and behaviors not so teachers can make snap characterizations but so we can understand better what helps people write well. The second caution is a reminder that change takes time, especially change of deeply- and long-held beliefs and practices. In helping student writers to change their approaches, we shouldn't expect miracles--but we should expect growth.

Since writing serves many purposes, the question or task that stimulates the writing should be determined by the goal to be served. To engage students in exploratory writing (journal-writing, prewriting to find topics, response-writing), general, open-ended prompts work well. At the other end of the spectrum, research papers in specific fields demand questions appropriate to the discipline. The following guidelines apply to expository writing assignments that are to result in finished academic essays. These guidelines are drawn from research summarized by Robert Connors and Cheryl Glenn in The New St. Martin's Guide to Teaching Writing (New York: St. Martin's, 1999; 60-73).

A Good Writing Assignment:

• has a purpose, provides a reason for doing the writing. Assignment with no purpose: "Describe in specific detail a major character in the novel." Better: "Describe a major character in the novel, explaining how various details of appearance and behavior reflect the character's reaction to loss."
• is meaningful within students' experience. Assignments do not have to be completely personal; in fact, assignments that are too personal may be off-putting to students. Good assignments do allow student writers to connect with their experiences. In research and other specialized writing, allowing students to choose topics is one way to make the assignment meaningful.
• is neither too general nor too limited. Assignments that are unfocused ("Is the national debt a serious problem?") or that can be answered with a simple yes/no ("Do the ACT exams have too much power over students' lives?") don't offer enough purpose or give enough direction. Better: "Evaluate the advantages and limitations of standardized test scores in the college application process."
• asks for writing about specific and immediate situations rather than abstract and theoretical ones. Abstract and theoretical: "Discuss the problem of sexism." Specific and immediate: "Discuss how you first became aware of sexism and how it has affected the way you deal with men and women."
• assumes appropriate student knowledge for the scope of the assignment. "Is America decaying as the Roman Empire did?" would require extensive research. Make the question more specific, able to be addressed through primary texts and experience.
• suggests a single major question to which the thesis statement of the essay is the answer. Posing multiple questions may confuse writers who attempt to deal with each question discretely, producing a fragmented essay. Multiple questions: "Is smoking tobacco harmful, and should the tobacco laws be changed?" Major question: "Discuss why tobacco should or should not be legal, supporting your argument with details from your own experience, the experiences of people you know, and our readings." Be sure to clarify the relationship of any supplementary questions to the major question.
• is neither too long nor too short. Too long and complex: frustrates and confuses. Too short: fails to give sufficient guidance. Remember that students must be taught to read assignments fully and accurately, paying particular attention to the directive verbs.
• builds on the previous assignment and prepares for the next, in terms of skills and/or subject.

Prepared by Libby Jones 3/97

"How can I get students to care about their writing?" This recent question from a faculty member prompted me to ask some current Berea students about writing assignments they've found valuable. Ten members of the Learning Center consulting and office staffs--first-year students through seniors, with a variety of majors--identified worthwhile assignments and gave advice to teachers on designing assignments. Though the survey was neither representative nor extensive, the students' responses are suggestive. Following is a summary.

Students indicate that a worthwhile writing assignment is one that

• helps the writer develop skills. A sophomore, assigned an annotated bibliography for a Short Term class, gained skill in evaluating a range of sources. For a U.S. Traditions research essay on her family's genealogy, a junior learned how to use the library. Through regular 1-2 page exploratory writing assignments where grammar and spelling were not evaluated, a senior found the beginnings of ideas for research papers.
• challenges, that has a definite purpose. A junior was asked to analyze a passage from a text without using outside sources; though she found this a "scary prospect," she was pushed into exploring and organizing her own thoughts. A first-year student has found her assignments interesting but not challenging; they seem to be designed more for evaluating her skills than for prompting critical and creative thinking.
• leads to insight and growth. Insights may be related to subject: a senior, writing about a novel's purpose, gained a better understanding of the complexity of the novel genre. Growth may be personal as well. A first-year student, a sophomore, and a senior spoke of discovering a lasting love of writing, of confronting parts of their lives, and of planning for change through extended freewriting or fiction-writing assignments, usually in their first year at Berea. A U.S. Traditions assignment to interview a grandparent was cited by a senior as her most worthwhile Berea writing: "I began to understand the importance of learning about your ancestry and keeping your history alive within you."

What advice do students have for teachers in designing assignments? In students' words:

• "Give the students a chance to incorporate their own thoughts into creating the writing assignments. They are the ones doing the work, so they should be allowed their input."
• "Encourage the writers to open up and write true words and not be afraid to express themselves."
• "Always open students up to new areas of life that they may not realize are there or see as important."
• "Challenge us -- make us think."
• "Focus on helping students develop their own thinking and analytical skills rather than relying on those of others."
• "Assign more creative assignments!"
• "Give students a chance to write down thoughts and to explore without having to worry about the technical aspects of writing."
• "Teachers need to be more careful with their criticism. Be critical, but considerate and constructive."

Prepared by Libby Jones, 3/97

College writing--particularly research writing in upper-level General Studies courses such as Western Traditions, Arts in Context, Seminar in World Issues, and Seminar in Christianity and Contemporary Culture--often requires students to make an argument or to defend a position. St. Martin's Handbook provides some guidance for argumentative writing, in Chapter 2 ("Defining Audience and Purpose") and in Parts Eight and Nine ("Doing Research and Using Sources"; "Academic Writing"). To help student writers develop the ability to argue convincingly and to construct effective position papers, teachers and writers may want to consult any of the following books or sections of books, all available at The Learning Center.

Adelstein, Michael E., and Jean G. Pival. The Writing Commitment. 3rd ed. Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984. 263-349.
This text places emphasis on the three major parts of the writing process--prewriting, writing, and rewriting. The format is sectioned into six parts which address certain types of writing. Part IV (chapters 19-25) focuses on the forms of persuasive writing, prewriting, reasoning, how to use argument, how to focus the argument, and rewriting strategies. There are many examples, outlines, and discussion questions throughout the chapters that may help the reader think of a topic for his or her paper.

Atwan, Robert, and William Vesterman. Effective Writing for the College Curriculum. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
This text is a composition reader including a broad range of topics dealing with specialized writing. The format is broken down into five parts which include: Part I, Humanities; Part II, Social Sciences; Part III, Science and Technology; Part IV, Business and Economics; Part V, Mass Communication and Popular Culture. In each part there are advocacy and argumentative (persuasive) essays. Also included in the appendices are student sample essays discussing the John Kenneth Galbraith essay which is included in this text.

Cederblom, Jerry, and David W. Paulsen. Critical Reasoning. 2nd ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing, 1986.
Cederblom and Paulsen stress the importance of "applying analytical and critical contexts to more everyday contexts" (v). Chapters 2-8 discuss deductive argument: defining, understanding, evaluating, clarifying meaning, clarifying fallacies, and applying to writing. Each of these chapters contains exercises that help students recognize the pattern of arguments, construct arguments, think critically, and write argumentative essays.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988. 380-412.
Chaffee states,"...[t]eaching thinking is accomplished through a synthesizing process: knitting critical thinking together with the fabric of students' experience--past, present, future; daily and academic. Critical thinking learned in this way becomes part of who our students are--how they perceive and understand themselves, others, and their world" (ix). This text defines and explains reasoning, presents a variety of readings, explains steps for good critical thinking, introduces writing assignments to get the students involved, and teaches students how to use critical thinking in their daily lives and writing assignments. Chapter 11 contains many exercises to help the readers to construct reasons and conclusions and to respond to other essays.

Cooley, Thomas. The Norton Guide to Writing. New York: W. W. Norton, 1992. 287-385.
Cooley's chapter called "Appealing to Reason" goes in detail about the several stages of writing a persuasive essay. Some of the stages discussed are logic, induction and deduction, and validity and truth. The chapter also includes detailed explanations on how to form the argument and how to write it effectively. There are several practice exercises at the end of the chapter.

Donald, Robert B., Betty Richmond Morrow, Lillian Griffith Wargetz, and Kathleen Werner. Writing Clear Essays. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996. 298-340.
The authors provide very clear Hefferman, James, and John E. Lincoln. Writing: A College Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1990. 137-167. In chapter seven, "Persuasion and Argument," Hefferman and Lincoln discuss the nature of persuasion and argument. According to the authors, "Persuasion demands special attention to the reader's needs, for persuasion is the art of leading other people to do something or believe something without compelling them to do so" (137). The authors first define an argument, then discuss how to use evidence to support the argument and how to use assumptions. There are several exercises throughout the chapter and one example of a well-written argumentative essay.

McDonald, Daniel. The Language of Argument. New York: Harper & Row, 1980.
The purpose of McDonald's book is to educate students about how to read argument and write argumentative essays. The book provides some persuasive topics that can be used in essays, as well as eight rules for good writing. The book is very user-friendly and contains essays incorporating fallacious arguments as well as essays making strong arguments.

Moser, Joyce, and Ann Watters. Creating America: Reading and Writing Arguments. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.
Creating America is a reading anthology that emphasizes argument and persuasion throughout American culture. By focusing on highly debated and discussed topics in American culture, Moser and Watters hope to prepare the reader for analyzing and criticizing arguments s/he may encounter later in life. Each chapter is based on a theme in American culture and ends with writing exercises. The book targets students unfamiliar with persuasion.

Reid, Stephen. The Prentice Hall Guide for College Writers. 4th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998. 408-64.
Chapter 10, on arguing, begins by discussing techniques, claims, appeals, and different types of argument. Reid discusses the stages of the writing process which include: choosing a subject, collecting information, shaping, drafting, and revising. The chapter concludes with professional and student writings as examples. Questions for writing and discussion are also included.

Trimmer, Joseph F., and James M. McCrimmon. Writing With a Purpose. 9th (Short) ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988. 132-58.
Chapter 6 deals with planning, organizing, and revising an argument. In planning an argument one must know how to select an effective subject, collect evidence on the subject, use the evidence to strengthen credibility, and consider the opposition. To organize the argument, one must have knowledge about the audience, arrange the evidence in order to inform the audience, and recognize the possible appeals to the argument. This chapter includes many examples and exercises dealing with the different aspects of an argument. The rest of the text discusses the writing process, purpose, development, expression, planning, and essay examinations.

Troyka, Lynn. Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990. 159-176.
In Chapter 6, "Writing Argument," there is a brief definition of argument with examples and exercises. A written argument is considered to be an essay which argues for one point of view and seeks to persuade the audience; it should contain a thesis statement which is derived from an assertion on the topic. An effective topic for argument must be one which is open to debate. A writer should consider the audience and then write with goals to establish credibility, arouse emotions, and appeal to the audience in order to persuade.

Wood, Nancy V. Perspectives on Argument. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.
This is an excellent source for anyone writing a research paper that presents an argument. It is very concise and helpful. The chapters end with exercises, activities, and essays for analysis. Part I discusses a perspective on argument, how to discuss argument, how to read argument, and how to write argument. Part II presents the parts of an argument, ways to use proof; and the types of claims. Part III discusses clarifying your purpose and understanding the audience, and includes summary charts of chapters 1-10. Part IV discusses the purpose of sample essays, how reading the essays will help one in writing about issue areas, and how to read critically and analytically. Part IV contains many sample essays sectioned into issue areas. The essays are helpful because they allow the reader to see how a good argument is structured, and, since there are pairs of essays which refute each other, the reader may also see how a good argument can be formed for two different sides of the same issue.

WHO might give feedback to a piece of writing?

• the writer herself
• one or more peers
• teaching associates or consultants
• faculty consultants
• professor
• intended audience

WHAT kind of feedback might readers give?

• global, comprehensive
• specific components/criteria
• summary, “mirroring”
• reader response, “movies of the mind”
• criteria-based response

WHEN in the writing process might feedback be provided?

• brainstorming/prewriting
• first draft
• outline
• revised draft
• finished draft

HOW might feedback be given?

• handwritten, on the draft or a separate sheet
• electronic (Review function in Microsoft Word)
• on feedback sheet/grid –check-off and/or comments

• individual conference
• small group
• audiotape

WHERE might written feedback be placed in the paper?

• between the lines of the text
• in the margins
• at the end
• on a structured feedback sheet
• on writer’s self-assessment/context page

WHERE (location) might written or oral feedback be given?

• in class
• out of class
• at the Learning Center
• in professor’s office

WHY might readers give feedback?

• to improve the paper
• to help the writer overall
• to help the writer take the next step
• to assess the paper
• to assess the writer
• to justify a grade or other evaluation

Libby Jones 8/02

1. They include multiple samples of writing from a number of occasions.
Rationale:
• No single writing sample can adequately reflect writing ability.
• Changing physical and psychological factors affect writing performance, so writers need chances to produce writing on different occasions.
2. They require a variety of kinds or genres of writing.
Rationale:
• Writing is a complex, multifaceted activity that cannot be appropriately represented by a single genre: not by narrative, not by exposition, not by argument, not by critical analysis. Writing competence varies from genre to genre. To ensure that various genres are included, portfolio programs often specify what is wanted.
3. They provide opportunities for revision and request evidence of the revision process.
Rationale:
• Using the revision process effectively is crucial to becoming a competent writer.
• Writers need to be encouraged to take seriously constructive criticism from teachers and peers; there is special educational value in the collaboration and community built when writers engage in getting and using feedback.
• Encouraging revision helps create an environment in which students are more likely to take risks and try exploratory writing, which ultimately leads to better writing.
4. They ask students for their reflections--on their portfolio, on their writing process or history, or on themselves as writers.
Rationale:
• Research has made it increasingly clear that thinking about what we have learned or are learning leads to future learning. The portfolio is thus a method of assessment that stimulates learning.
• Self-assessment is valuable: students gain practice in formulating and applying evaluative criteria, a process that helps them not only to read and respond more thoughtfully to the writing of others, both professionals and classmates, but also to develop their own set of standards for use once they have left school.
5. They offer important choices to the writer.
Rationale:
• Granting students a large measure of control over their work--asking them to consider which pieces to include in the portfolio, how extensively to revise each piece, when and where they should do their writing and revising--is treating them as real writers. This improves their self-confidence, their critical thinking and evaluative skills, and their independence and self-reliance--all important educational goals.

Other implications of college writing portfolios:

1. Portfolios encourage sustained thinking and continuing effort.
2. Portfolios help teachers focus more on texts than on grades. Since students can typically improve their grade by strengthening the papers included in the portfolio, students and teachers are encouraged to become allies rather than antagonists.
3. Two implications for evaluation:
• Portfolios evaluate students on the basis of their best work, not their average work.
• Portfolios make possible local control of evaluation.

Taken from Daiker, Donald, Jeff Sommers, and Gail Stygall. "The Pedagogical Implications of a College-Placement Portfolio." Assessment of Writing: Politics, Policies, Practices. Ed. Edward M. White, William D. Lutz, and Sandra Kamusikiri. New York: Modern Language Association, 1996. 257-70.

Prepared by Libby Jones 4/97

"Portfolios have a fruitful and supportive effect on the individual classroom, both on teachers and students…Portfolios help teachers negotiate the conflict between the role of supportive, welcoming helper and the role of critical, skeptical evaluator."--Peter Elbow and Pat Belanoff, "Reflections on an Explosion: Portfolios in the 90s and Beyond"

Using portfolios as a basis for assessment isn't new. Artists, professional writers, freelance consultants have traditionally built collections of their work. Over the past fifteen years, portfolios have gained increasing acceptance in secondary and post-secondary education as a means of assessing students' achievement and growth. Kentucky residents are familiar with the KIRIS portfolios in writing and in math, compiled by students in fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades. At Berea, some departments (English, Education Studies, and Agriculture, among others) ask their majors to create portfolios demonstrating various competencies. And over the four undergraduate years, every Berea student builds a Communication and Research Portfolio including entries that document a growing range of accomplishments in written and oral communication and information-seeking through seven core General Studies courses. The Communication and Research Portfolio also includes an Open Section to which students can contribute materials from other courses, their labor positions, activities, and personal work.

Portfolio: a Definition

Three key words defining a portfolio are collection, selection, and reflection. Thus a writing portfolio is a collection of written pieces, selected by the writer to demonstrate achievement, breadth, and growth (or other goals), accompanied by the writer's reflections on his or her development.

“The portfolios should belong to us students. The portfolio is a collection of our work, an exhibition of our progress, and a tangible reflection of our accomplishments. The portfolio is an opportunity to document our academic and creative effort for the sake of personal reward as well as a graduation requirement.”--Berea College student

Advantages portfolios offer in assessing students' writing

• A portfolio gives a more accurate picture of a writer's abilities, because it includes several samples of writing from different occasions. Any single piece of writing may have been affected by various physical and psychological factors so is less trustworthy in determining a writer's skills (Daiker 257).
• A portfolio shows how a writer handles different genres of writing, for varied purposes, audiences, and occasions. No single genre of writing--narrative, exposition, argument, critical analysis, proposal, correspondence, etc.--can adequately reflect a writer's abilities (Daiker 257; Elbow 120-21).
• A portfolio allows a writer to be evaluated on the basis of his or her best work rather than on an average of all work (Daiker 259). While assessment of individual pieces may discourage writers from trying new approaches or penalize them for early failed attempts at new writing tasks, portfolios reward writers' effective use of the revision process and allow them to demonstrate their achievement over a period of time.

Benefits portfolios offer student writers

"The greatest advantage for students is the opportunity portfolios provide for reflecting on their learning process and progress."--Cheryl Evans Ause and Gerilee Nicastro, "Establishing Sound Portfolio Practice"

In addition to providing a basis for fair and comprehensive evaluation, portfolios offer students rich opportunities for increasing their learning.

• The portfolio asks students to take revision seriously and to value, rather than resent or dismiss, constructive criticism from teachers or peers. Writers who learn to seek and use feedback will keep improving their writing long after the end of the course or the degree; the habits of sustained inquiry and continued effort that portfolios demand are habits all successful learners need.
• The portfolio asks students to reflect on their learning and to develop their abilities to evaluate their own work--two practices which increase learning now and long-term.
• By asking student writers to make important choices about their work, portfolios increase students' agency and encourage them to become independent, self-directed learners (Daiker 259).

Ways to help students make good use of their Communication and Research Portfolios

• From the beginning of the term, stress the purposes of the portfolio and the opportunity it provides for students to demonstrate achievement. Underscore the importance of the portfolio by including it as one basis for evaluating students' performance (a percentage of the grade for writing or course).
• Review with students the general portfolio guidelines as well as the course-specific ones; to help students achieve the necessary variety, you can specify types of writing or oral communication for one or more of the optional pieces.
• Coach the writing of context (reflective) statements to accompany each entry, by reviewing drafts of statements and asking additional questions to prompt students' reflections. Dorothy Schnare suggests asking students to provide context statements for major assignments as the course progresses; not only does this allow early practice in reflection, while students' memories of their composition processes are fresh, but it also provides background for your responses to individual pieces.
• Allow adequate time for students to revise work and prepare their portfolios at the end of the semester. Urge students to take advantage of workshops and individual help offered by CEC for preparing the portfolio.

• Consider reviewing your students' portfolios to help them think about their achievement and needs or as part of an application for a labor position or admission to a major.
• Urge students to include in the portfolio work done in their labor positions, activities, or other classes so the portfolio will reflect broad development.

• Introduction to Communication and Research Portfolio
• Chapter 54, St. Martin's Handbook ("Assembling a Writing Portfolio")
• Sample portfolios and context statements, CEC
• Portfolios in Classrooms and in Schools: Real Models, Real Choices, Real Challenges (video and book from National Council of Teachers of English, 1997 -- available at CEC)
• A variety of books and materials in Hutchins and from Libby Jones

Works Cited

Daiker, Donald A., Jeff Sommers, and Gail Stygall. "The Pedagogical Implications of a College-Placement Portfolio." Assessment of Writing: Politics, Policies, Practices. Ed. Edward M. White, William D. Lutz, and Sandra Kamusikiri. New York: Modern Language Assn., 1996. 257-70.

Ice-breakers: Student-student interviews, then introduce one another to group. “Know me” technique -- say two or three things others should know.

Response Cards: Individual students write responses on cards first and then share the responses with a small group or the entire class.

Response Pairs: Pairs of students discuss a topic, their opinions, or a response to a question and then share that with the group.

Questions from all Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy: Start with the lower levels and proceed to higher order questions as the students respond successfully.

• Lowest level: Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Highest level: Evaluation

Wait Time: Wait longer than a few seconds for students to response before rephrasing a question, answering it yourself or moving to another respondent. Wait for additional responses.

Ask Students to “Unpack their Thinking”: Have students describe the thought process through which they developed an answer.

Question Follow-ups:

• “Do you agree?”
• “Why?”
• “Who can support or refute that answer?”
• “What are some other examples?”
• “Is that analogous to any other situation?”
• “Who can elaborate?”
• DO NOT EVALUATE OPINIONS.

Randomized Questioning: In a review, shuffle name cards to select respondents.

Opinion Polls: Assess and tally the opinions of the group as a basis for discussion. Pairs of students with differing opinions for discussion.

Student Interviews: Students interview each other or resource persons beginning with questions they have pre-planned in groups.

Content Outlines: During the presentation of knowledge by any medium, students can fill in details on a basic content outline prepared by the instructor.

Review pairs: Pairs of students take turns reviewing knowledge, each acting in rotation as the instructor and the student.

Ranking Rating of Knowledge Difficulty: The students rank or rate the difficulty of comprehending different concept, skills, etc. Learning occurs during the dialogue. The instructor learns which content is most difficult for the students.

Knowledge Grammy Awards: The students agree which knowledge is the most useful to them.

Choral Response: Upon cue, the students respond in union to a question.

Non-verbal Signals: Thumbs-up/thumbs down, color–coded or lettered signal cards, computer polling, flash cards, body motions: used in responding to questions.

Student-generated Summaries: These may be prepared by pairs or small groups to be shared with the class.

Brainstorming: Ideas are generated by students with no evaluation. The goal is amassing a large number of alternative ways to solve a problem.

Decision-making: Given the constraints of the situation, students evaluate the alternatives generated in brainstorming and choose the best solution.

Visualization: Students create a mental video of themselves performing a certain behavior or skill.

Air Drawing: Using hands or arms, students “draw” in the air how they manually accomplish a task such as setting up lab equipment.

Chalk/Marker Board Responses: Students write their responses on individual boards and show them to the instructor and/or to each other.

Role Playing: Students take the role of someone else in an extemporaneous dramatization of a situation about which they have knowledge.

Simulation: Students actually perform a set role using behavior and knowledge they have learned. Simulation is one step removed from real life.

Cooperative Scripting: Pairs of students take turns summarizing sections of content in a text. While one student summarizes, the other listens, corrects errors and adds omitted content.

Inquiry: Through a series of questions, students seek to identify something. The instructor answers “Yes,” “No,” or “Rephrase.”

Devil’s Advocate: An extreme opinion is deliberately put forth by the instructor to stimulate debate and dialogue.

From Elizabeth A. Papageorge, Department of Teacher Education, California State University, Turlock, CA

1. Listening – paying close attention to what the student says and querying to ascertain if the student’s intended meaning is the interpreted meaning.
2. Facilitating enjoyment – developing a classroom environment that is enjoyable, an environment in which learning is both interesting and entertaining.
3. Dynamism – physically indicating to the students that one is dynamic, active, and enthusiastic via physical and vocal animation.
4. Eliciting others’ disclosure – inquiring about the students’ interests and opinions and providing positive reinforcement for responses.
5. Optimism – presenting a positive outlook and one’s self as someone who is pleasant to be around, someone who will not be self-critical or critical of others.
6. Sensitivity – communicating empathy, sympathy, and an “I care about you as a person and what you think about” attitude.
7. Conversational rule-keeping – following the cultural norms for socializing, being polite, and demonstrating interest in what the student says.
8. Comfortable self – displaying confidence in the setting, oneself, the students, and presenting self as a relaxed, contented individual.
9. Nonverbal immediacy – smiling, making frequent eye contact with students, exhibiting forward leans and other nonverbal cues indicating interest.
10. Altruism – attempting to be of assistance to the student by doing things for her or him or giving advice.
11. Presenting interesting self – highlighting of past accomplishments, positive qualities, and demonstrating one’s knowledge.
12. Trustworthiness – letting the student know that as a teacher one is responsible, reliable, fair, honest, sincere, consistent in beliefs and behaviors, and will fulfill promises.

Ann Bainbridge Frymier and Catherine A. Thompson, “Perceived Teacher Affinity-Seeking in Relation to Perceived Teacher Credibility.” Communication Education 41, 4: 397-98.

Exit Slips: At the end of class, ask students to jot down a question/comment about the day's session. Use those questions/comments as a way to determine whether students are having difficulty. Address the most common problems in class the following day.

Scientific Term/Concept: First, take a scientific term or concept (e.g. dinosaurs, DNA, evolution) and write a brief (about one-page) explanation suitable for a reference work. This assignment involves research and discipline-specific writing. Then take that same concept and write a two- to three-page explanation for a non-specific audience, e.g., a feature on the origin of the universe for a Sunday newspaper supplement. This part ensures comprehension and the ability to communicate across disciplines.

Microthemes: "mini-essays" written on small pieces of paper, usually 3" by 5" index cards (mostly to restrict length).

The Summary microtheme: Ask students to read their assignment and then write a summary of the main points. In addition, as you explain a concept or present a set of facts, ask students to write a brief summary.

The data-provided microtheme: Provide students with data and ask them to discover propositions which give meaning to the data. For example, give students the end of a paragraph of a case study. And then ask them to write what led up to that conclusion. These exercises can be used as a basis for in-class group work.

The thesis-supported microtheme: Ask students to choose form lists of thesis and then generate support for the one they selected.

Analogies: Ask students to look in their everyday work and try to find applications for the ideas and concepts that they are studying. Then ask them to observe and explain what they see.

Word problems: Instead of using only equations or formulas to solve problems, ask students to write out their approach to a problem, and to use formulas and equations only when necessary.

Critical Thinking Warm-up: Before beginning a class discussion on a subject, ask students to jot down some ideas in response to a specific question or questions about the content for discussion. For instance, if you asked students to read a short story for class discussion, ask them to take a few minutes to respond to the motivation for a character's behavior. This refreshes their memory, promotes the thinking process, and prepares for the discussion.

Note-taking is an effective writing activity that can be used to promote learning. To assist students, you may want to suggest the following strategies:

• Don't record every word (if that is even possible) of the speaker.
• Listen critically and purposefully to what the speaker is saying.
• Jot down just enough notes to keep the main ideas of the speaker within the short-term memory.
• Return to those jottings and formulate into a coherent summary.

"Our most consequential human problems will be resolved not through competition, but collaboration. And what we need in education is a learning climate in which students work together. In such an atmosphere, truth emerges, as authentic insights are conscientiously exchanged." --Ernest L. Boyer

Authors in different disciplines describe their research and practice in collaborative learning. The collection argues for the benefits of shifting responsibility for learning from instructor to students. One essay suggests ways to use collaborative learning effectively in large classes.

Bruffee begins his work with an explanation of collaborative learning--what it is, how to use it, and how it's been received in colleges and universities. He continues by examining consensus groups as one model of collaboration and by explaining how to join writing and collaboration. Bruffee holds the belief that an interdependent school/education leads to an interdependent world which will not be hampered by the hate and mistrust in the current one.

Eleven kinds of responses that readers or listeners can make to writing are described in this short handbook. Examples of each type of response are provided, along with comments on various uses. Writing groups would find this book very useful.

This particular resource is dedicated to exemplifying the role of a leader. This book gives valuable insight into shared leadership that all group members should consider. Chapter #6, "Leadership in Groups and Teams," is a must for readers who are serious about collaborative learning but short on time. Although Hackman and Johnson refer to the leader as one individual, the resource still provides valuable information for collaborative teams.

This book begins by defining collaborative learning and its importance in the classroom. The Hills cite research that shows the worth of collaboration and list skills which ensure effective collaboration. While the authors focus on primary grades, it is apparent, as they point out, that the same skills are needed for all ages.

This resource is a handbook to cooperative learning. The authors split the book into chapers that answer the why, what, how, and when questions regarding cooperative learning. Distinguishing what is and what is not cooperative learning is high on these authors' list of goals. Circles of Learning directs its attention to teachers' questions of how to set up student teams as well as support groups for faculty. This book is a quick read that answers many questions regarding cooperative learning.

Larson and LaFasto discuss the importance, as well as the pros and cons, of working together as a team. There are graphs, tables, and practical suggestions to supplement their theories. These additions give you a better mental picture of how groups can work to your advantage.

Materials from the 1994 National Conference on Collaborative Learning are gathered in this 400-page notebook. Included in methods of collaborative learning are essays and assignments in cooperative learning, electronic collaboration, learning communities, peer teaching, problem-centered instruction, and team learning. A second section features discussions of issues such as assessment, diversity, group processes, large classes, and grading. Work by Martie Kazura and Libby Jones is included in the Peer Teaching section (133-43).

This work discusses the individuality of people in the group. It shows how individuals work together in a learning environment to educate themselves and each other. Chapter 7, "Conflict and Its Resolution," is a must-read, because despite everyone's best intentions, conflict can arise within the group. The authors stress that even though everyone has individual preferences, the group needs to bind together as a whole.

Essays in this collection probe the social and institutional conditions that affect collaborative learning. In particular, authors explore the effects of ideologies such as gender, race, class, and individualism on collaboration in the writing classroom. Collectively, writers argue that "the pedagogical paradigm of collaboration signals a changed sense of society" (5) where cultural differences are valued.

These authors look at group work through a group's perspective instead of an individual's. Although Sampson and Marthas focus on the health care professions, this is a book for everyone to read. This resource goes into the theory and practical details of groups, including the role of group leader and verbal and non-verbal communication within a group.

This book is a handbook organized to assist in teamwork. Scholtes examines all the characteristics of groups including how to deal with problems that individuals bring into the group. The last chapter is devoted to group warm-ups and exercises.

This book gives a listing of numerous cooperative methods including those discussed in the following annotation. Slavin begins this work with an explanation of cooperative learning and then goes into further detail on methods and research.

If you are looking for a "How to..."plan to incorporate collaborative learning in your classroom, this is the book to check out. Slavin gives five different types of pedagogies that have been proven to heighten students' learning. They are Students Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD), Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT), Jigsaw I & II, Team Accelerated Instruction (TIA), and Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC). All five pedagogies have been approved by the Joint Dissemination Review Panel, an agency that examines research and certifies those that meet strict requirements. The first part of Slavin's book explains the new methods while the second half shows how to put those plans into action.

This work gives advice for everything from composing the paper to showing how to troubleshoot. In Chapter 10, “Giving Feedback,” Spear discusses the best and worst ways to give feedback to the other individuals in the group. Spear bases her recommendations on analyses of taped peer feedback groups.

These interactive videos provide an easy-to-follow format for writing groups. One person reads a paper to the other three group members. Listeners just listen the first time; the second time they take notes. After the second reading, the listeners take turn giving feedback. Student Writing Groups demonstrates reading and responses to a single longer paper; Beginning Writing Groups presents two shorter pieces by high school students. Includes discussion of benefits of this approach.

Timbur reviews the literature on issues and approaches to collaborative learning. This chapter provides a good overview of the field through the early 1980s.

This book provides the reader with information about how to design a format for group study. The group is asked to accomplish a major task by solving a carefully-sequenced set of problems. The authors also include tables, figures, and diagrams to explain the problem-solving approaches.

Weiner focuses not on teachers’ evaluations of students’ learning through collaborative assignments but on evaluation of faculty members who make use of collaborative learning. He argues that faculty evaluation must be grounded in an understanding of the demands of this teaching approach. Weiner suggests appropriate bases for faculty evaluation.

The authors examine small group communication from start to finish. The authors detail the verbal and non-verbal essentials in group communication that ensure effective collaboration. Wilson and Hanna focus on what makes groups work effectively together. This resource is an in-depth study of collaboration and comes with a teacher’s edition and an instructor’s manual.

“During the past 90 years nearly 600 experimental and over 100 correlational studies have been conducted comparing the effectiveness of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts. Cooperation among students typically results in (a) higher achievement and greater productivity, (b) more caring, supportive, and committed relationships, and (c) greater psychological health, social competence, and self-esteem.”--Karl Smith, David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson

The purpose of this 1986 video series, produced by UCLA, is to explain the tutoring process and to suggest effective tutoring strategies. Each lesson includes footage from actual tutoring sessions as well as a summary of main points. Teaching associates as well as tutors can benefit from this series, available at Hutchins Library. The call number is Video 371.3 T966a.

This lesson defines the interpersonal qualities and academic abilities that tutors are expected to bring to the session. Goals of the tutoring session are listed so that the viewer knows what tutor and student should achieve.

During the first session, the tutor and student discuss their expectations. The tutor and the student make an oral contract to attend regularly, come to the session prepared, etc. When working with a student, a tutor should create a rapport with his or her student.

This lesson instructs tutors on ways to construct a tutoring plan, to prepare for tutoring sessions, and to implement the tutoring plan. Also discussed is effective use of personal experiences to help students learn.

This lesson shows two different ways to conduct a tutoring session. Using diagnosis, the tutor gives the student a quiz in the first session and every session thereafter, as a basis for tutor feedback. The Socratic Method involves testing through oral questioning. However, when using the Socratic Method, one should try to avoid lecturing.

When working with students, tutors should be aware of their body language, which conveys feelings as much as actual spoken words. It is also important to remember that students watch the actions and reactions of their tutors.

This lesson is divided into two parts: learning to understand and mastering exams. The tutor encourages active learning and helps the students stay in control.

Group tutorials are a good way for students to interact with other students. By talking over their responses to the same topic, students may help each other to understand the material better.

By watching this lesson, the tutor can learn about the counseling skills he or she will need to work with students. Helpful approaches are sharing your own experiences, showing empathy, and using appropriate body language.

To build bridges with students of different cultures, tutors need to promote student independence, watch their biases, and try their best not to impose their own values.

Skills for math and science are different from those needed for social sciences. Students need to learn the language, simplify relationships, choose alternatives, and check solutions. Drawing pictures is a good way of simplifying and remembering relationships.

In order to tutor students in the social sciences, one has to create a framework, foster critical thinking, master the terminology, and master the exams. One way of creating a framework is to provide an understandable context.

Tutoring students in the humanities demands setting goals and deciding on a strategy. Through setting goals, students will be more likely to gain an understanding of what is expected from them.

This lesson deals with generating the content of your paper and revising the drafts. One idea presented for finding a topic and generating details is brainstorming.

Tutoring ESL students is very different from tutoring native English speakers. This lesson reinforces the use of communication strategies, writing strategies, etc. One very important strategy to use is Don't Talk Down! The tutor should encourage the student, not make him or her feel inadequate.

Prepared by Dana Croucher, Senior Researcher

1. INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION

SKILLS & GOALS

Many educators maintain that students benefit greatly from group work. Stories lends itself to group work—not only class and small-group discussions, but also projects and presentations. David Jaques, in Learning in Groups: A Handbook for Improving Group Work (3rd edition), has listed the following as skills, or learning goals, which are developed and met through group projects/presentations:

Individual skills:

• Develop a personal interest and expertise in an area of the subject;
• Demonstrate the ability to handle new problems;
• Form independent judgments;
• Collect and interpret unfamiliar information;
• Show initiative;
• Encounter facts, views and situations from unfamiliar perspectives;
• Integrate knowledge from a range of sources.



Group skills:

• Learn to work cooperatively;
• Share in a decision-making process;
• Exercise leadership, chair meetings;
• Be flexible in adopting roles to suit the changing needs of the group.



Personal awareness:

• Learn about own strengths and weaknesses in respect of the above;
• Make a realistic appraisal of ability in relation to the complexities of the task;
• Gain a sense of satisfaction through personal achievement;
• Gain a sense of autonomy and freedom within the constraints of the task.



Communication skills:

• Communicate work in a clear and effective manner in discussion [and in writing];
• Develop questioning and listening techniques in seeking and making sense of information;
• Develop skills of logical and persuasive argument;
• [Write a coherent and readable account of the work done] (Jaques 8; items in brackets are my additions).



Our General Studies aims encompass these skills, and proficiency in these areas will benefit students throughout their education at Berea College as well as their lives beyond school. It is helpful for instructors to share these skills goals with students when assigning a group presentation, so that the students are aware of and understand why they are asked to do a group presentation and what they are expected to learn and gain from the assignment. Often, if students understand the reasons, or goals, for a particular assignment, they are more willing to put their best effort into completing it.

CAUSES OF PROBLEMS WITH GROUP COMMUNICATION

Certain factors cause group communication to fail, or at least to be less successful than it could be. Students should be aware of the following problems which can interfere with their own group’s progress while working on their presentation, as well as with the response of the rest of the class to their presentation, if the rest of the class is expected to participate or respond:

• Being concerned with self-image;
• Stopping people from expressing their own ideas;
• Trying to dominate the discussion;
• Trying constantly to change other people’s opinions;
• Always responding with certainty and force;
• Being judgmental;
• Implying superiority;
• Avoiding the expression of feelings (Jaques 71).



It might be helpful for the class to discuss these communication barriers, to be sure they are aware of them both in group discussion situations, as well as in group presentations. This way, students can try to avoid these pitfalls as they work with each other and as they make their presentation to the rest of the class.

FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE SUCCESS OF A GROUP PROJECT/PRESENTATION

Just as there are hindrances to the success of group work, there are ways to increase the likelihood of success: “Group motivation is optimized when students have clear goals to attain, feel efficacious about performing well, have positive outcome expectations, attribute success to ability, effort and strategy, and receive relevant and prompt feedback. Further research evidence indicates that the following factors are among those regarded as significant in group projects:

• Goal activation—projects encouraging students to achieve their own goals;
• Goal salience—goals being clear so that students know what is expected;
• Multiple goals—lead to greater success;
• Goal alignment—goals aligned with each other and not in conflict;
• Optimal challenge—tasks being difficult and challenging, but not excessively so” (Jaques 85).



Instructors need to have these factors in mind when planning a group presentation assignment. Further, according to research on group projects, presentations usually go better when students have some degree of choice in the subject matter; when students are responsible for figuring out, planning, and doing whatever research or legwork is necessary to prepare the project; and when students have the opportunity to turn in documents/progress reports along the way and receive feedback from the professor all along, rather than simply present the end result in class after the process is finished (Jaques 145-46). One of the trickiest parts for the instructor is striking a balance between not giving the students enough guidance, and giving them too much. Students need to have enough clarity and direction to avoid frustration and confusion, but not so much guidance that they feel the presentation is not really theirs.

GROUP PRESENTATIONS FOR STORIES

A group presentation for Stories can focus on many different things, such as (among others):

• presenting a short or long narrative to the class (would not necessarily include library work);
• presenting background information on an author (would involve library work/research);
• presenting historical/contextual information about the setting of a narrative or the time in which an author lived and wrote (would involve library work/research);
• leading the class in a discussion (would not necessarily include library work).



In order for a group presentation to be effective, teachers and students must attend to several factors, including selection of topics; selection of group members; the process of group work (division of tasks, preparation of materials, and accountability); structure of presentation; the presentation itself; and assessment.

One way to choose topics/group members is:

• Topics of interest to the class are listed.
• The topics are whittled down, through discussion, to a small number.
• Each student ranks the topics in order of personal preference.
• The course [instructor] then allocates topics to students according to these preferences: the groups are thus constituted (Jaques 146).



If an instructor has strong opinions about which topics need to be covered, s/he can come up with a list of topics and let students rank them in terms of interest; or, the instructor may have another method of devising a list of topics and/or dividing students into groups. For Stories, three or four students per group is probably optimal.

Once the topics and group members have been assigned, it is important to consider how the groups will go about the task of working together, so that all the work gets done properly, and each group member makes an equal and valuable contribution. Researcher D. Yamane uses groups of four students and assigns each group member one of the following roles:

1. President/discussion leader who keeps the group on task by developing an agenda and using it to structure meetings.
2. Scribe/recorder who keeps minutes of each meeting (paying particular attention to work assigned to members) and distributes the record to the rest of the group.
3. Coordinator who considers each student’s submitted work and class share deals, as well as ongoing conversation with them to identify regular meeting times and places.
4. Intermediary who periodically meets one-on-one with the tutor [or TA, or instructor] to report on his or her group’s progress and to answer instructor questions about how the group is working as a team (Jaques 147).



Instructors who do not want to use such a formal way of dividing group members may devise another method of insuring that what they want students to accomplish is indeed accomplished, and that the group members put equal effort into the assignment. Some kind of accountability is necessary to keep students on track (so that they don’t wait until the last minute to throw something together), and to make sure they are working and thinking in ways that are appropriate for their presentation topic. In addition to thoroughly preparing the material for the group presentation, group members must think about how to communicate that material most effectively to the rest of the class. According to Jaques, to explain/instruct clearly you should:

• Try to orient the other person to the task and to what is being communicated—have a clear picture of what you want the other person to understand;
• Analyse your own feelings about the topic and the other person;
• Assess your own and the other person’s communication skills;
• Try to identify yourself with the psychological state of the other person;
• Make a realistic assessment of the degree of clarity obtainable in the given context;
• Make the message relevant by using the other’s language and terms—state ideas in the simplest possible terms;
• Define before developing, and explain before amplifying;
• Make it clear when you are explaining as opposed to instructing;
• Develop one idea at a time;
• Take one step at a time;
• Use appropriate repetition;
• Review when relevant;
• Compare and contrast ideas;
• Use analogies;
• Determine which ideas need special emphasis;
• Use as many channels as necessary for clarity;
• Pace according to the learning capacities of the other person;
• Where any two-way communication is possible, watch for and encourage corrective feedback in as many channels as possible. (Jaques 74).



Students may also be encouraged to use visual and/or audio aids when necessary or desirable to increase the effectiveness of their presentation. If they choose to use audio-visuals, however, they need to be sure to practice with the materials ahead of time.

ASSESSMENT OF GROUP PRESENTATIONS/PROJECTS

Some criteria which might be considered when assessing the process the group has gone through to prepare the presentation are:

• Regular attendance at group [meetings] preparing material for the task;
• Contribution of ideas for the task;
• Researching, analysing and preparing material for the task;
• Contributing to cooperative group process;
• Supporting and encouraging group members;
• Practical contribution to end product;
• Competitive cooperation (Jaques 233).



In terms of evaluating the actual presentation, the following checklist, assembled by the University Teaching Methods Unit in London, England, might be useful (some items are more pertinent to our situation than others):

Observation of discussion:

• Objectives. What was the purpose of the discussion? Was it clear to the participants? Did they accept it?
• Is the teaching method appropriate for these objectives?
• Setting. The room itself—what associations does it have? Does it encourage intimacy and relaxation?
• Seating—are the chairs comfortable? All the same? Draw a plan of their arrangement. Note empty chairs, distances between participants, prominence of any one group member.



Roles of individual students [presenters]:

• What interpretations (if any) can be made about individual students’ characteristic behaviour? What observable effects do they have on relations within the group (including the tutor)?
• What role does each student have (eg, leader, playboy, passive observer, clarifier, consensus-taker, reconciler, etc)? Are these roles temporary, changing or permanent? Are they sought, accepted or thrust upon them?



Dynamics:

• Length and frequency of each member’s contributions.
• What status does each group member have?
• Is the group harmonious or competitive? How were conflicts dealt with? Denial, avoidance, repression or made explicit and worked through?
• What emotions or motives are aroused? (eg, do questions produce fear, curiosity, laughter…?)
• What are the goals of group members? Do they coincide with the tutor’s objectives? How much commitment?
• Did the group stay formally as one or did it split up for different phases? What effects were produced by the changes or lack of change?
• What rules appeared to prevail? What behaviour is appropriate in the group? (e.g., order of speaking, not disagreeing with tutor, avoiding specifics?) (Jaques 242-43).



Students should also consider the effect their presentation will have on their fellow classmates, and strive to make the presentation smooth, interesting, and easy to follow. Classmates should be able to write down several things they learned as a result of listening to the presentation.

Whatever criteria each instructor develops for her/his class, the way students will be assessed and evaluated should be clear and available from the time when the assignment is given. Further, students should be aware of who will be assessing their performance. Will they do a self-evaluation, of their own preparation and performance as well as that of the other members of their group? Will the other students in the class evaluate the presentation? If so, how much will these evaluations count? How will the instructor evaluate the presentation? What percentage of the grade will be based on content, structure, clarity, interest, smoothness, preparation, equality of involvement? These things should be determined early on, and made clear to all class members as they begin working on their projects.

FOR INSTRUCTORS: POSSIBLE IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES

To do as a class:

• Discussion of skills goals for group presentations.
• Discussion of hindrances to effective group interaction (including class discussions and group presentations).
• Discussion of factors that enhance success of group interaction, especially group projects/presentations.
• Discussion of possible presentation topics; selection of topics for preference list (students will then rate the topics and be assigned to groups on the basis of their preferences).
• Discussion of possible formats/approaches (such as “talk show,” panel discussion, question and answer, students speaking interspersed with audio-visual materials, etc.).
• Discussion of using audio-visuals effectively.
• Discussion of the specific assignment--its components and the instructor’s expectations.
• Learning Center consultants come into the class and do a sample group presentation (the instructor can ask for a “bad” and/or a “good” presentation). Then, Learning Center consultants and/or the instructor lead the class in critiquing the presentation, to give them practice in evaluating a group presentation, and to let them see some things which do/do not work well in a group presentation.



Once the groups are formed:

• In their groups, students discuss how they want to narrow and focus their topics, and make a list of work which needs to be done. They divide tasks and come up with a tentative meeting schedule.
• Students meet during class time in their groups to report to each other about their progress, compare notes, decide what to do next—in short, do whatever they need to do at their stage of preparation.
• Learning Center consultants meet with individual groups during class time to discuss each group’s plan for the presentation, the work they have done so far, etc. Learning Center consultants will provide feedback and suggestions for each group, and could set up a time for a follow-up meeting/practice session outside of class.



FINAL NOTE FOR INSTRUCTORS

The group presentation assignment works well accompanied with a writing assignment(s) and/or a library assignment. Since students are doing quite a bit of work in preparing the presentation, and are thinking about and possibly doing research on their topics, they are often proud to show off some of what they have learned in written form as well as in the form of the assigned oral presentation. Written assignments connected with the group presentation assignment could take a variety of forms, and could range from extremely informal to formal; they could deal with process or content…there are many possibilities.

2. STUDENT MATERIALS

SAMPLE GROUP PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT FOR STORIES

Each group will have four members (perhaps one or two groups will have three members rather than four), who will make a presentation over one of the authors/texts we will be reading for class. Below is a list of topics for you to rate according to your preference (1 for the topic you like best; 5 for the topic you like least—please fill in all the blanks). Once the preferences have been turned in, groups will be formed according to these preferences. After that, each group will be asked to meet with the instructor or class TA to discuss possible ways to approach the topic and what kind of work will be needed in order to prepare the topic. Group members will decide how to narrow and focus the topic according to their interests and abilities (subject to approval by the instructor). Group members will also determine what kind of format to use in their presentation. There is a lot of room for creativity, and many different formats will work well; just remember to check out your ideas with the instructor before you proceed with them. Each presentation should last approximately 20 minutes.

List of Topics

• Flannery O’Connor: biographical information
• Flannery O’Connor: overview of her work
• Life/Religion/Racial Issues in Milledgeville, Georgia in the mid 1900s
• “Revelation”: Interpretation
• “A Good Man Is Hard to Find”: Interpretation



Group Members’ Roles

Once each group is formed, group members should decide among themselves which person will take on each of the following roles (see the instructor if your group has three members rather than four):

• President/discussion leader who keeps the group on task by developing an agenda and using it to structure meetings.
• Scribe/recorder who keeps minutes of each meeting (paying particular attention to work assigned to members) and distributes the record to the rest of the group.
• Coordinator who considers each student’s submitted work and class share deals, as well as ongoing conversation with them to identify regular meeting times and places.
• Intermediary who periodically meets one-on-one with the instructor or TA to report on his or her group’s progress and to answer instructor questions about how the group is working as a team (borrowed from Yamane, quoted in Jaques 147) .



The Intermediary will be expected to work out with the course TA a schedule for meeting at least once a week to update the TA on the group’s progress, and to discuss any issues that have come up throughout the week. The group’s work and process, as reported by the intermediary and seen through the scribe/recorder’s notes, will form part of the final grade for the presentation.

Some points to keep in mind

• Your presentation must be coherent, and not appear to be four separate mini-presentations. One part of the presentation must flow smoothly to the next.
• Be sure the presentation style is varied. If you need to read aloud, for example, do only a little bit. You may want to stand up and move around. You may want to ask questions.
• If you need equipment from Media Services, be sure to let the instructor know at least a week in advance so that s/he can reserve it.
• PRACTICE together ahead of time—more than once—to make sure everyone keeps to his/her time limit, and that the presentation works as a whole.
• Each group member should share equally in the preparation for and presentation of the material. If one group member is not pulling his/her weight, the other members of the group, after discussing the problem with the unproductive member, giving him/her a formal warning, and discussing the problem with the instructor, have the right to drop the unproductive member from the group. This will automatically result in a zero presentation grade for the person who is dropped.

Grading

All group members will receive the same grade, which will be determined on the merits of the presentation as a whole, as well as the work group members did in preparing the presentation. The following points will be considered in calculation of the presentation grade:

• Was the presentation well thought-out and carefully planned? What evidence shows this?
• Was the presentation well organized? What is the evidence?
• Were all group members well prepared for their parts of the presentation? How was this demonstrated?
• Did each group member have an equal share of the presentation (both in terms of time and subject matter)?
• Did the presentation move effectively and logically from one part to the next, and were the transitions smooth?
• Did the group members show interest in and enthusiasm for their subject?
• Had the group practiced together beforehand so that the presentation went smoothly from beginning to end, and fit the allotted time?
• How did the group attempt to involve the class in the presentation?
• How did the class benefit from this presentation? What did they learn? What were they prodded to think about?

The instructor, course TA, and class members will all complete an evaluation form based on the above questions (see sample evaluation form, below). In addition to the group members being evaluated, the other class members will be evaluated too, on the quality and thoughtfulness of their answers on the evaluation sheet. In short, group members are responsible for doing the best job they can with their presentation, but other classmates are responsible for being thoughtful, receptive members of the audience; and if requested by the group, ready participants in whatever activity the group has planned. Classmates should be encouraged to provide positive criticism and apply what they learn from others’ presentations to their own planning, preparation, and presentation.

NOTE: All groups must meet with the Learning Center at least once prior to their class presentation, for advice/critique. It is helpful to meet with the Learning Center consultant more than once…at least once during the planning stage, and once for a trial run. Groups will need to contact the Learning Center ahead of time to make an appointment.

GROUP PRESENTATION GRADE PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN:

Group work done while preparing presentation: 15%

Classmates’ evaluation of presentation: 10%

Instructor and TA’s evaluation of presentation: 75%

SAMPLE EVALUATION SHEET FOR CLASSMATES TO FILL OUT FOLLOWING GROUP PRESENTATION

Stories 10-27-2000 Evaluator’s Name___________________________

EVALUATION SHEET: Group Presentation on “Revelation.” Group Members (in alphabetical order):

1. Had the group spent enough time preparing? Was the presentation well thought out? Explain.
2. Were the group members knowledgeable about the material? Had they done their homework? Did they communicate their expertise or lack thereof? Explain.
3. Was the presentation interesting? Did the group make an effort to involve the audience and keep their attention? How?
4. Did the presentation include the ideas/perspectives of the group members as well as material from other sources? Give examples.
5. Was the presentation well -organized? Did it flow smoothly? Explain.
6. Was each group member actively and equally involved in the total effort? Explain.
7. What are three things you learned from this presentation?
8. What is your overall response to this presentation.

Learning Center Tipsheets:

• Effective Group Work
• Tips for Speaking
• Planning Revision Checklist for Oral Reports
• 32 Recommendations for Giving Presentations
• Tips for Speaking

Students become better writers if they become better readers—of their own writing and others’. One good way to give students practice in both reading and writing is to employ peer review in the classroom. Since most Stories sections incorporate group work, peer review is a natural activity for the class, which, if done well, will help students to read better, write better, and think better about their writing (both process and product). Peer review takes for granted the idea that writers usually need to revise a piece of writing—often more than once—before it is “finished” or ready to turn in. The basic process of peer review consists of :

• students writing a paper in response to a class assignment;
• bringing copies of that paper to class;
• in a small group, asking other students to read the paper carefully and respond to it with comments and questions that will help the writer rethink, revise, and improve the paper.

FACTORS WHICH PREVENT PEER REVIEW FROM WORKING WELL

Students are often uneasy at first with the notion of peer review, feeling that they are inadequate to the task of “criticizing” their classmates’ papers, and at the same time, distrustful of their classmates’ abilities to “criticize” their own papers. This uneasiness (and even unwillingness) can be overcome, but it is helpful to be aware of stumbling blocks to the success of peer review in order to avoid them. The following problems will keep peer review from accomplishing its intended purposes:

• confused expectations about the group’s purpose and the individual’s role in it;
• inability to read group members’ texts analytically;
• misperceptions about the nature of revision and of writing as a process;
• failure to work collaboratively with group members;
• failure to monitor and maintain group activity (Karen Spear, Sharing Writing, 17-18).

In order to avoid these pitfalls, the instructor needs to be sure that:

• the expectations of peer review and each peer review session are clear, both for the group as a whole and for each member;
• students must be taught how to read analytically;
• students need to understand that the draft brought to the group for review is a work in process, and that they need to provide concrete comments and questions to the author in order to help her/him revise (as opposed to merely “tinker with”) the draft;
• students need to understand how to work in a truly collaborative fashion, rather than avoid important issues for the sake of maintaining group harmony (likewise, students must actively participate in the group and try to work together, whether they see the immediate value of the assignment or not);
• the instructor and/or course TA must monitor group activity to insure that each group is working well and staying on task.

SOME IDEAS ABOUT HOW TO INCORPORATE PEER REVIEW INTO THE CLASSROOM

Karen Spear, author of Sharing Writing (1988), suggests an assignment be made very early in the semester—one connected with content the class will be studying—which would involve peer responses to written work over a space of four class periods. For the first class period of the assignment, to prepare for small groups reading each others’ papers and responding, each student is to write a paper on a topic the instructor has assigned, as well as answer the following question prior to coming to class: “What specific questions or problems would you like your group to help you with?” (92). After the class period in which her/his paper is reviewed, each student does the following:

1. List the major recommendations that members of your group have made.
2. Identify for yourself the next steps you need to follow to revise your draft (92).

QUESTIONS FOR REVISION WORKSHOP

Writer’s Name: Reader’s Name:

1. Does the introduction clearly and adequately set up the rest of the essay? To determine this, read only the introduction and jot down the expectations it sets up for you, the reader. Continue reading to see whether your expectations have been sustained. If not, should the introduction or the body of the essay be changed? What would you suggest? Does the data [or text(s)] support everything [the writer says]? Has [the writer] avoided sweeping generalizations . . . that are not directly related to [the] data [or text(s)] . . . ? Look particularly at the relationship between the introduction and the rest of the paragraphs.
2. Do the examples [the writer uses] seem adequately representative or has [the writer] stretched an example to “prove” [his or her] case? Does [the writer] have enough examples to support the trends [s/he] sees?
3. If there is more than one paragraph, describe the logic behind the individual paragraphs. Are the reasons clear for dividing the essay into the present paragraphs or would another arrangement be better?
4. Describe the ordering principles that seem to underlie the draft. Is your explanation consistent with the writer’s? If not, where does the mismatch occur?
5. Does the draft include transitional devices to help you, the reader, see where the ideas are headed and why? What suggestions can you make?Describe the voice you hear in each paper. Is there a real voice and personality behind the language of the draft or does one draft in your group sound pretty much like another? What needs to be done to individualize each one?

On the fourth class day of the assignment, says Spear, “when the paper is due, students exchange papers with a partner for a final proofreading. . . . [This] helps to reinforce the difference between drafts and completed writing” and “brings the composing process to completion not just for the teacher, but for the students who have watched each other’s work evolve” (93). Spear sees this four class-day peer response experience as setting the tone for the rest of the term, and it gives students an extended opportunity, early on, to read each others’ work and learn how to respond helpfully and thoughtfully. One of the keys to successful peer review is asking specific questions that students can answer honestly, and which require answers that are closely connected to the text of the draft. The specificity of the questions (and the absence of language which would make the reader feel that s/he is being asked to be too critical) help the reader to make comments and suggestions which are non-threatening to the writer, but which help him or her to think in different ways about what s/he has written (which, in turn, helps the writer think of ways to improve the paper through revising).

Please note that course content is not being neglected; since the papers are about course content, students think about the content at the same time as they think about the writing process and how to make their ideas clear in writing.

OTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR PEER REVIEW DAYS

The “Questions for Revision Workshop” shown above is merely one approach to guiding students in a peer review session. There are many ways to help student readers respond to papers in ways that will help their classmates write and revise more effectively. One approach, which Spear calls “Free Writing on Reading” (107 - 108), has the reader read the draft, then do a free-write in which s/he responds to the following questions:

FREE WRITING ON READING

Writer’s Name: Reader’s Name:

1. What questions came to your mind as you read?
2. What associations occurred?
3. What seems most important? Why?
4. What seems least important? Why?
5. What expectations or preconceptions did you have? Why?
6. How did you respond to passages that seemed difficult to read?
7. How did difficult passages affect your understanding of the whole text?

Sometimes the writer is asked to answer these questions in a self-evaluation of her own paper, then compare her answers with those of classmates. Differences in responses to the questions (3 and 4 in particular) probably signal a lack of clarity in the paper which will need to be attended to in the revision.

MAKING NOTES ON DRAFTS

Some instructors choose to have student readers make notes right on classmates’ drafts, rather than fill out a separate response sheet. “Such notes provide comments orally or should be focused on the reader’s response, e.g., I’m confused; I like this; I don’t know what this means; I see how this connects with your thesis; I remember that so-and-so said the same sort of thing; I got lost when you started on this topic” (Spear 110). In short, the reader should write notes which show how s/he is experiencing and understanding (or not understanding) the text as s/he goes through it - giving what Peter Elbow calls "Reader Based Feedback." (See Learning Center's tipsheet, Sample Questions for Peer Evaluation)

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

It is helpful for peer response groups to look at a paper’s structure, since often the writer has difficulty identifying and thinking of ways to correct structural problems in his own paper. Here is one guide to structural analysis (Spear 110-11):

A PROCESS MODEL FOR READING AND REVISING

Writer’s Name: Reader’s Name:

1. Read through the draft. Really read it. Understand what the author meant to say. Don’t rely on one quick reading. Read it once to get a sense of the piece as a whole, again to look at details like what it says and how it is put together. Don’t be too concerned with the exact words. Go underneath them to understand the ideas they represent.
2. Now take the draft apart. List what you think are the major ideas and state what seems to you to be the author’s purpose. (This can be done either orally, going around the group, or in writing, during the class or prior to it.)
3. Under each major idea, note what the writer does to back it up.
4. Considering the purpose, the major ideas, and supporting information as you see them, what ideas affect you most strongly? What else might you need to know? What might you do differently? What would you like to hear more about?
5. Next, compare the outlines and comments prepared by each member of your group. See if the readers are consistent with each other in identifying the purpose, main points, and supporting information. See if their constructions are acceptable to the writer. What does the writer like and dislike about his or her draft? What does the writer regard as its strengths and weaknesses? If your group has differences of opinion, share them with the writer. Consider especially the additions and changes you were thinking about. Discuss what effects these changes might have and what the writer might do with them. (Remember, writers can’t incorporate all suggestions; the idea is to use them to stimulate thoughts on specific ways to revise the draft.)

Conclude the session by making sure each writer has constructed a brief outline or list that includes the major points he or she will try to cover in revising the draft. It’s important to provide a few minutes of class time for writers to compile their notes. The group’s comments are still fresh in their minds then, and this interval emphasizes the importance of taking the feedback seriously and reviewing it carefully as a way of planning revisions.

CHALLENGING THE WRITER

To help students think fruitfully about their papers and how they might revise them, Louis Rath suggests “challenges” which readers can make concerning their classmates’ drafts. Below, Rath’s “challenges” are listed on the left, and Spear’s adaptation of the challenges into questions for student readers to ask are on the right (Spear 148-49):

Type of Challenge Questions

reviewing alternatives the writer Why did you choose this alternative?

considered but rejected Why did you decide against this explanation, this

illustration, this thesis, etc.?

eliciting other explanations or How else might this come about?

solutions How would so-and-so solve this problem?

What else might make a person behave this way?

applying a generalization to a If the situation were this way, what could happen?

different, sometimes more complex What interpretation would you make?

situation What conclusion would be possible?

testing the universality of a belief Would/should everyone hold this view?

or conclusion If they did, what would happen?

Does this conclusion hold in all cases?

challenging point of view Who might see this differently? How might they see it?

How would their circumstances affect their interpretation?

defining a term What does this mean?

citing exceptions or eliciting When might this not work? not be appropriate?

exceptions not be desirable?

examining the limitations of a For whom, when might this idea not apply? Are there some

belief or conclusion circumstances under which this would not be so?

defining conditions under which a What makes you believe this? Can you think of a

conclusion is true situation when you might change your mind?

locating inconsistencies Does this belong? Does this fit?

How does all of this fit together?

Is this the right/best order?

assessing the strength of counter- If you believed the opposite, what would your

arguments reasons/conclusions be? What other arguments

might be raised?

checking the validity of a source of What makes you believe this source?

evidence What other sources of evidence are available?

asking for the degree of someone’s What would you need to change your mind?

certainty How strongly do you believe this?

distinguishing fact from opinion How do you know? Is it observable? If I saw what

you saw, would I come to the same conclusion?

Are you making a value judgment?

(Spear 148-49)

CREATING YOUR OWN PEER REVIEW FORMS FOR YOUR CLASS

You can adapt any of the above questions or approaches for use in your own class, or use any of the many that are available in writing texts or in the Learning Center. Also, you can create your own peer review forms, to make sure they meet the needs of your particular class or assignment. The University of Hawaii website http://www.hawaii.edu/uhmwrite/wi/writmat7.htm discusses how to develop your own forms. The following paragraphs and examples are quoted from this website (please consult the website itself for more information).

• Good peer review . . . does not happen automatically. You can help your students become good peer reviewers by drawing on your own experiences, teaching them what to look for, and creating peer review opportunities in your classrooms. One particularly effective way to guide them is by developing and using feedback forms. . . .
• Journal editors provide criteria lists to guide reviewers’ comments and evaluations. You similarly guide your students’ feedback on each other’s drafts by providing them with a list of characteristics that are key to their success on the assignment. Such lists have the added benefit of promoting students’ familiarity with characteristics of writing that are important in your field and of making explicit your evaluation criteria.
• The first step is describing the characteristics in language your students will find useful and understandable. The next step is easy: convert your list of characteristics into a peer feedback form.
• Here’s an example. Your goal is to help students recognize and construct assertion-plus-evidence arguments. You can devise a criteria grid (Sample 1) to guide students’ feedback on their classmates’ drafts. If you want fuller responses, you can leave more space for “Reader’s Comments” and ask students to fill the space with specifics.
• To prompt even fuller feedback, you can develop a list of open-ended questions—like those in Sample 2. The amount of space you leave for students to write their responses will indicate how much commentary you expect. You can easily modify both types of forms to fit different assignment guidelines or to emphasize additional aspects of the assignment.

TEACHING STUDENTS HOW TO RESPOND

Even with a feedback form in hand, students will not necessarily know how to respond to peer drafts. Most students need to be taught how to give constructive, useful feedback. One approach:

1. Hand out copies of a sample completed assignment (perhaps written by a student the previous semester).
2. Discuss the criteria on the feedback form so that the language becomes meaningful to everyone.
3. Show how you would apply the criteria by “thinking out loud” as you read the first paragraph of the paper.
4. Ask students to read the paper and complete the feedback form (alternatively, they could complete the form out of class).
5. Discuss the responses as a class.

Practice sessions are important for the success of peer review. They give you a chance to clarify the criteria and even aspects of the assignment if that proves necessary.

Student responses such as “This is good” or “This is bad” are too general to be helpful and don’t give a writer enough information on how or what to improve. Show students how to go beyond generalities by reinforcing appropriate and effective comments as students offer them in discussion. Encourage them to specify what needs improvement and what works well.

ORGANIZING THE PEER REVIEW SESSION

After students become familiar with how to respond, they can bring copies of their own drafts to class and, in groups of 3 or 4, respond to each other’s writing via the feedback form.

HELPING STUDENTS USE THE FEEDBACK

The final step is getting students to use the feedback they obtained from the forms. Here are several activities that may be helpful:

• Students briefly summarize in writing the feedback they received and jot down the changes they plan to make in their upcoming revision.
• Students submit a cover memo along with their finished writing in which they explain how they revised in response to the reviews they received.
• Students fill out a feedback form on their own draft. Then they compare their self-analysis with the peer feedback they received and make plans for the next round of revisions.
• Students use the feedback forms as a checklist before turning in their next drafts.

GIVE FEEDBACK FORMS A TRY

By developing criteria-explicit feedback forms, teaching students how to respond, and providing opportunities for students to apply the feedback they received, you can

• Reduce your own feedback workload
• Give students a deeper understanding of how their writing affects different readers
• Reinforce their familiarity with revising strategies
• Help them to internalize some of the writing expectations of your field.
• You can also use the feedback form for your own responses to student drafts. (http://www.hawaii.edu/uhmwrite/wi/writmat7.htm, 7/14/99)

PEER REVIEW AND THE NEW ST. MARTIN’S HANDBOOK

The New St. Martin’s Handbook includes a sample student draft essay on pp. 46-48; this would be a handy text for all students to use in class for peer review practice. On pp. 52-53 are questions student readers can use to guide them in responding to the draft, and on pp. 54-55 are comments made by students in the essay writer’s class which show how they responded to the same questions. Further, there is an excerpt which shows how the instructor responded to the draft (pp. 55-56). In short, all the material to do an in-class practice peer review session and discussion is in the St. Martin’s.

ELECTRONIC PEER REVIEW

An alternative to in-class peer review with paper forms is electronic peer review, which students with laptops can do from just about anywhere on campus, and students who don’t have laptops can do from one of the campus computer labs.

To have a class engage in electronic peer review using Microsoft Word (naturally, the instructor can do this as well), students should follow these steps.

1. Students prepare a draft and send it to their classmates electronically (the easiest method is probably to attach a copy to an e-mail message; another option is to set up folders accessible to all class members, which allows them to insert and retrieve materials for review—the Computer Center can help set this up).
2. Student reviewers open the draft they have been assigned to review.
3. After opening the draft, go to the “Tools” menu.
4. Under the “Tools” menu, select “Customize.”
5. Under “Customize,” select “Toolbars.”
6. Under “Toolbars,” select “Reviewing.” After this, the “Reviewing” Toolbar should appear at the top of the document

The Reviewing Toolbar allows student reviewers (or instructors) to highlight portions of text and insert a comment or question about the highlighted portion; they can also “strike through” parts of text they think should be omitted, and insert alternative possibilities or remarks. Once the student reviewer has finished, s/he needs to save the document to a hard drive or diskette, and be sure to attach the reviewed version of the draft to an e-mail message which will be sent to the writer. The writer can then open the draft and see the reviewers’ comments.

Student reviewers can also fill out peer review forms electronically and send them to writers and/or instructors electronically, rather than using paper (or class time).

Electronic peer review reduces the amount of interchange and discussion which takes place in an in-class peer review session, and the give-and-take of an actual in-class peer review can be helpful in various ways, yet electronic peer review has the advantage of not taking up class time, while still providing the writer with different responses to his or her draft.

For more information on using electronic peer review, contact Cary Hazlewood (IS&S), Libby Jones, or Megan Hoffman.

LEARNING CENTER TIPSHEETS:

• Sample Peer Evaluation Sheet
• Reviewing a Draft: Points to Consider
• Understanding College Writing Expectations
• Reflecting on Writing: Questions to Consider
• Stages in the Writing Process
• Journal Strategies: Writing to Learn
• Writing a Essay
• Outlining
• The Thesis Statement
• Proofreading
• Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
• Subject-Verb Agreement

Sample 1: CRITERIA GRID

Writer’s Name: Reader’s Name:

________________________________________________________________________

Strong Satisf Weak CRITERIA READER'S COMMENTS

________________________________________________________________________

___ ___ _X_ Assertion: clarity, Your position is clear. I also like

importance the way you explore points that

conflict with your main point. ________________________________________________________________________

_X_ ___ ___ Evidence: relevance, I don't see how your second and

strength, credibility third pieces of evidence support

your assertion. ________________________________________________________________________

___ _X_ ___ Organization: arrangement Pretty good. But the middle

of ideas, guiding the reader paragraph on the second page

seemed in the wrong place.

________________________________________________________________________

_X_ ___ ___ Mechanics: spelling, Many careless mistakes. Better grammar, punctuation proofreading needed.

________________________________________________________________________

___ _X_ ___ Overall effectiveness I'm not completely convinced.

Your assertion needs to be

supported with better evidence.

________________________________________________________________________

Author___________________________ Reviewer____________________________

The goals of peer review are 1) to help improve your classmate's paper by pointing out strengths and weaknesses that may not be apparent to the author, and 2) to help improve editing skills.

INSTRUCTIONS

Read the paper(s) assigned to you twice: once to get an overview of the paper, and a second time to provide constructive criticism for the author to use when revising his/her paper. Answer the questions below.

CONTENT (50%)

Did the writer adequately summarize and discuss the topic? Explain.

Did the writer comprehensively cover appropriate materials available from the standard sources? If not, what's missing?

Did the writer make some contribution of thought to the paper, or merely summarize data or publications? Explain.

ORGANIZATION (10%)

Were the basic sections (Introduction, Conclusion, Literature Cited, etc.) adequate? If not, what is missing?

Did the writer use subheadings well to clarify the sections of the text? Explain.

Was the material ordered in a way that was logical, clear, easy to follow? Explain.

GRAMMAR AND STYLE (20%)

Were there any grammatical or spelling problems?

Was the writer’s writing style clear? Were the paragraphs and sentences cohesive?

CITATIONS (20%)

Did the writer cite sources adequately and appropriately? Note any incorrect formatting.

Were all the citations in the text listed in the Works Cited section? Note any discrepancies.

Prepared by Carol de Rosset 8/01; rev. 8/02

Some benefits of Readers’ Theatre are:

• Reading a text aloud helps the readers (and listeners) pay attention to the text in a way they might not otherwise do;
• Reading a text aloud helps the readers (and listeners) understand the meaning of the text in a way they might not otherwise do;
• Reading a text aloud helps readers (and listeners) understand the various possibilities of interpretation of the text, depending on how the text is read;
• Reading a text aloud helps readers (and listeners) pay attention to language, word use, and sentence structure before a group, and being part of a group, in a non-threatening and enjoyable way.

To create a Readers’ Theatre script from a narrative the class has been assigned, an instructor can either write out a section of the text in script form, or simply make divisions in the text the students are using for class, telling each student where his or her part begins and ends and having students mark their own copies. This latter method works better if students have a chance to practice before reading aloud before the class.

Students will need to be assigned roles; if there are not enough roles for all the students to have one, instructors may use the following options:

• One group of students may read a page (or a few pages) of script or text, and then other students will take over and read the next pages(s);
• One group of students may read the entire script or section of text, with one set of interpretive directions, and a different group then reads the same script with a different interpretation;
• One group of students may read a script/section of the text one day, and another group of students will take a turn when the next narrative is assigned for class.

The main thing is to make sure all students participate. Instructors may want to assign smaller parts at first to students who are painfully shy or extremely resistant to the assignment, until practice increases the students’ confidence.

Resources:

The Learning Center -- consultants are available to prepare scripts and coach readings in or out of class.

Lee, Charlotte and Timothy Gura. “Readers Theatre,” in “Group Performance of Literature.” Oral Interpretation. 7th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987. 436-41. (Available at Learning Center)

Prepared by Carol de Russet 2001; rev. 2002

REVIEWING A DRAFT

1. The assignment. Does the draft carry out the assignment? What could the writer do to better fulfill the assignment?
2. The title and introduction. Does the title tell the reader what the draft is about? Does it catch the reader’s interest? How? What does the opening accomplish? How else might the writer begin? (4f1 and f2)
3. The thesis and purpose. Paraphrase the thesis as a promise: “In this paper I will . . .” Does the draft fulfill that promise? Why, or why not? Does it fulfill the writer’s major purposes? (4b2 and 4d)
4. The audience. How does the draft capture the interest of and appeal to the intended audience? (4b4)
5. The rhetorical stance. Where does the writer stand on the issues involved in the topic? Is the writer an advocate or a critic? What words or phrases in the draft indicate the stance? Where does the writer’s stance come from—that is, what influences have likely contributed to that stance? (4b3)
6. The supporting points. List the main points in order of presentation. Then number them in order of interest to you. Review them one by one. Do any need to be explained more or less fully? Should any be eliminated? Do any seem confusing or boring? Do any make you want to know more? How well are the main points supported by evidence, examples, or details? (4d)
7. The organization. What kind of overall organizational plan is used—spatial, chronological, logical, or some other plan? Are the points presented in the most useful order? What, if anything, might be moved? Can you suggest ways to make connections between paragraphs clearer and easier to follow? (4e)
8. The paragraphs. Which paragraphs are clearest and most interesting to read, and why? Which ones are well developed? How are they developed? Which paragraphs need further development? What kind of information seems to be missing? (4gl)
9. The sentences. Choose the three sentences you consider the most interesting or the best written—stylistically effective, entertaining, or otherwise memorable. Then choose three sentences you see as weak—confusing, awkward, or uninspired. Are the sentences varied in length, structure, and openings? (4g2)
10. The words. Mark words that are particularly effective, that draw vivid pictures or provoke strong responses. Then mark words that are weak, vague, or unclear. Do any words need to be defined? Are the verbs active and vivid? Are any words potentially offensive, to the intended audience or to anyone else? (4g3)
11. The tone. What dominant impression does the draft create—serious, humorous, satiric, persuasive, passionately committed, highly objective? Mark specific places where the writer’s voice comes through most clearly. Is the tone appropriate to the topic and the audience? Is it consistent throughout? If not, is there a reason for its being varied? (4g4)
12. The conclusion. Does the draft conclude in a memorable way, or does it seem to end abruptly or trail off into vagueness? If you like the conclusion, tell why. How else might it end? (4f3)
13. Final thoughts. What are the main strengths and weaknesses of the draft? What surprised you, and why? What was the single most important thing said? What do you want to know more about?

Most writing texts nowadays include at least some information on revising, editing, and proofreading; it might be useful to look at some different ones to see their approaches to these topics. Different sorts of techniques work for different writers; below is material excerpted from Writing Brief, 3rd Edition (Elizabeth Cowan Neeld and Kate Kiefer, 1990: 249-257) which uses a slightly different pedagogy to help students edit and proofread than the one in The New St. Martin’s Handbook. For some instructors, the approach below tries a little too hard to be “user friendly,” but most of these ideas work very well with freshmen who may need to be convinced of the importance and value of revising, editing, and proofreading their work.

WHY EDIT?

Editing is important for several reasons.

1. Certain conventions of propriety are associated with writing. If you violate these established principles—say, have no margins or write in choppy, incomplete thoughts—then you are asking for the same kind of rebuff received by a barefoot person who tries to go into a roadside restaurant that posts “NO SHOES, NO SHIRT, NO SERVICE.” Editing gives you the opportunity to adjust your writing.
2. Editing cleans up your writing so the reader will be more receptive to your message. Readers have certain expectations of a paper—they want it to make sense, to be readable, to have an order that they can follow, to be correctly spelled and punctuated, to be neat. Because that’s so, some readers will see only weaknesses—the smudges, the misspelled words, the confused sentences—and fail to see anything else in the paper, no matter how important that “anything else” might be. You may not think it’s fair to equate mistakes in papers with sloppy thinking, but many people do just that. They pay so much attention to one or two faults that they miss the whole message. To give your message the best chance possible, you have to make it free of blemishes.
3. Editing removes the last sources of confusion. Perhaps the reader is tolerant; maybe he or she doesn’t mind a smudge or is “understanding” about a misspelled word (although it’s dangerous to count on that). But even if such flaws don’t upset the reader, they may steal the punch or cloud the clarity of the message you are trying to get across. Why spend hours on a piece of writing only to have it less effective than it could be simply because you didn’t edit thoroughly to remove the last sources of confusion?
4. Editing lets you review what you’ve written and make sure that it says what you mean in a way you can be proud of. It’s impossible, however, to check on the way it is said while the thoughts are still hot and rolling in. Only after the words are “cold” can you do the fine tuning that turns work from “OK” into “good” or “good” into “best.” Editing carefully gives you a chance to (a) say what you mean and (b) put on any finishing touches that you want to make. It’s your final chance to make the writing something you are proud of—both for what you say and how you say it.

THE EDITING EYE

Editing does not mean condemning. The constructive critical faculty of your mind allows you to evaluate and discriminate while editing. You are able to turn a critical eye—an editing eye—on your writing and spot possibilities to make your writing even better. You aren’t looking to blame yourself for what you did badly—you merely want to see how your writing might appear to someone else. You edit so that your readers will keep on reading.

Although you might suppose that nobody would send out a paper without polishing and editing it, experience shows that almost all beginning writers tend to skip this stage. Many writers, especially when they are pressed for time, read over a paper and think, “Well, that looks all right to me,” because it takes a specially trained eye to know what to look for and to spot the ways the writing might be improved. This section will enable you to develop that “trained eye,” and practice will perfect your use of it.

Five Editing Steps

There are five steps to take in editing, and each step takes you closer to the goal of a perfect paper. Here are the five steps:

1. Get Distance
2. Read Aloud
3. Find the Errors
4. Make It Look Good
5. Proofread

Let’s look at what you need to do to complete this five-step approach to editing your work.

1. The Get-Distance Step. It happens to most writers, including professionals: they fall in love with what they have just finished writing. This euphoria is well deserved—but not particularly trustworthy. The relief of finally being finished may get in the way of your ability to see your creation for what it is and how well it communicates to the reader. When love is blind, disappointment may lurk in the wings. Writers who are “in love” with their latest creation are not likely to be entirely objective.

What to do? Love your writing all you want. But get some distance. There are several ways to get distance, and although you’ll get by using only one of them, you’ll profit by using all of them. Here they are.

Let the writing cool before you edit it. Let at least a day go by—preferably two—before you reread to edit. Waiting will make a “new reader” out of you—your approach will be more like a reader’s and less like the author’s. You will see weaknesses you simply couldn’t see before.

Pretend you are a (skeptical) reader. This is another way to give you some distance from your writing. Pretend you are the most disbelieving, skeptical, “show me!” reader you can dream up. Ask the writer (who, for the moment, is someone other than you) to prove everything: “Oh yeah? Why should I believe that? What’s the connection between this paragraph and the ones that follow? What’s the point?” Granted, this isn’t the kindest way to get distance, but it will provide you with a rigorous critique—and also prepare you to accept the critiques of others.

Read your writing backwards. No, not from right to left (unless you write in Hebrew or Arabic)—from last sentence to first sentence. This odd exercise is an aid to becoming objective. It gives you distance from your writing by disengaging you from the familiarity of it, from the flow of one line to another. Each sentence stands out, alone and naked, unprotected by its neighbors. If it’s weak, or incomplete, or boring, you’ll know. (This procedure works only with sentences, not with larger elements such as organization and structure of paragraphs.)

Use symbols to make quick, short-hand notes in the margins as you edit. (Obviously, leave wide margins on your draft.) You need to see your writing as a whole, and you can’t do so if you are constantly stopping to make changes as you read. When you are all done, then you can go back to your symbols and make the needed changes. You can make up your own symbols. Or you can use [traditional editing/revision symbols].

2. The Read-Aloud Step. This sounds like a small step, but it could be the secret to finding mistakes in your work before you turn it in for final evaluation. You can be certain that if you stumble over something that you read, you need to fix the sentence. When students are reading their papers out loud to other members of the class, they are often overheard to say things like “Oh, I left part of that sentence out” or “I didn’t say what I meant to say there.” The best way to solve these problems is to read your writing aloud to someone else—you tend to notice what doesn’t work when someone else is listening! You can even read it out loud to yourself (preferably into a tape recorder), and your ear will catch what your eye may have missed. If you find yourself listening with only half an ear and becoming bored, read the paragraphs out of order. It will perk up your attention and help your ear catch inconsistencies in development as well as weaknesses in word choice and rhythm.

If you can find a willing listener, ask him or her to answer these questions after hearing your paper:

What words do you remember? (Have your listener call these words out to you.)

In one sentence, summarize what I just read to you.

In one word, summarize what I just read to you.

Getting your listener’s responses to these questions will let you know what you have communicated. You need only take note of what the listener heard. Since you are the writer and you are in charge, you can do whatever you wish with the information you receive. You will probably want to use the information to help you edit (or even revise more) because what your listener heard is most likely what you will be communicating to other readers.

3. The Find-the-Errors Step. Some errors occur more frequently than others, and most writers quickly discover which mistakes they are most likely to make. If you know what kinds of errors to look for, you are likely to find (and to fix) them. Make a list of flaws you need to watch out as you edit your writing. . . .

As you compile your personal list of editing notes, add appropriate questions to the following list that you can use to check your final editing.

If I have any fragments in the writing, were they intended?

Did I run two sentences together with only a comma instead of a period [or a semicolon] between them?

Did I put a comma before the word and when two sentences were connected?

Do my verbs all agree with their subjects?

Do my pronouns match their antecedents?

Did I draw pictures with words—give my reader vivid images to remember? (Find eight examples.)

Can I find 25 words I could take out right now and not miss them? (Delete as many words at this moment as you possibly can.)

Would I know the passive voice if I saw it? If I have used passive voice, was it intentional and effective?

Did I use commas clearly and appropriately to help readers get my message?

Did I use clichés?

Did I put an apostrophe in it’s when I meant it is? Did I leave the apostrophe out of its when I meant to show possession? How about other apostrophes?

Is every word spelled correctly?

Did I find and correct all the typos?

Do I have wide, even margins?

4. The Make-It-Look-Good Step. When you have checked your paper for flaws and oversights, you are ready to print out or type the final copy for presentation to the reader in manuscript form. Now you want to think about the way the writing is going to look on the page. As in editing, don’t let carelessness or laziness cause you to do a halfway job. Nobody would spend hours building a beautiful walnut bookcase and then display it at a craft fair with sawdust all over it. The way your paper looks will have a considerable psychological effect on the reader. While a good-looking paper with no content won’t get you anywhere, a paper with excellent content but a sloppy appearance usually won’t either. You can’t win either way on this one; it has to have both. Good content + good appearance = success with reader.
5. The Proofread Step. Your paper may be proofread by you or by someone else, but be sure that it does get proofread. A well-written, good-looking page replete with typographical and other errors is like a beautiful, well-dressed person with spinach on one tooth: the effect is marred—and a little hard to take seriously.

What is proofreading? It is a final read-through for the purpose of catching careless flaws. At this stage, you are looking only for typographical errors, omitted letters or words, sometimes even omitted sentences, misspellings, inappropriate punctuation, and so on. . . .

It’s worth your while to become familiar with proofreading concerns and symbols, but for extra insurance have another person proofread after you do. You will always have more difficulty spotting mistakes in your own work than someone else will. Since you know what you mean to say, the words don’t have to be there on the page for you to think them as you read. Also, you may not know every principle for, say, appropriate punctuation, and it may take you a few weeks to learn how to edit thoroughly. In the meantime, your papers have to be evaluated. So get someone who is good at proofreading to go over your paper with you before you turn it in.

Always try to leave yourself enough time to . . . re-print pages with significant numbers of proofreading changes. If you don’t have time, make the changes clearly on the final copy you will hand in. If you do have time to retype/ re-print, proofread once again to catch any flaws you might have missed the first time or new ones you introduced in retyping.

Remember, your reader will begin forming impressions and expectations about your paper even before he or she begins to read it. Those expectations will be based on how the paper looks. Give yourself an advantage by presenting not only clear prose but good-looking prose, too.

USEFUL TIPSHEETS:

Reviewing a Draft: Points to Consider

Revising Writing

Proofreading

Prepared by Carol de Rosset 8/01; rev. 8/02

Let’s consider ways to revise the working thesis to make sure it states a clear promise to readers.

The thesis works in much the same way as a microscope which puts objects into focus. When we use a microscope at 10 power, we can see relatively small objects, but not necessarily in great detail. When we raise the power of magnification, we can see less of the whole object, but we see much greater detail. A thesis performs the same function for readers and writers. A relatively narrowed thesis can allow writers to explore larger topics, but usually only with few details (unless the paper is considerably longer). A more narrowly focused thesis allows writers to use much greater detail. And detail gets and keeps readers going.

Read this opening paragraph, noting especially what the thesis commits the writer to covering.

Many Americans feel overwhelmed at times by the amount of advertising they are exposed to in an average day: radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and billboards! After all, total advertising expenditures in the United States amount to 2 percent of the GNP. However, some economists argue that the importance of advertising to the economy is much greater than the 2 percent figure would suggest, as this $61 billion investment generates much more economic activity. They maintain advertising molds consumer demand for new products, often by making existing problems obsolete. This “contrived obsolescence” appears, for example, in the fashion industry where every season efforts are made to bring about fashion changes and new fads in clothing styles. Other economists, however, argue extensive advertising wastes resources. So is it worth it? In studying several positions on advertising’s merits and pitfalls, one can conclude that advertising—wasteful or not—is necessary.

What will this paper cover? It promises to examine several positions on the merits and pitfalls of all forms of advertising. Do you suppose any writer can succeed in this task in a paper of only three pages? Probably not. The topic is too broad to cover quickly, especially when detail is the key to keeping readers interested and informed. This writer needs to narrow his topic so that he can focus his and his readers’ attention. . . .

Sometimes a sentence can look like a thesis, yet because it is either too broad, or too muddy, or both, it doesn’t serve either reader or writer. For example, “The beauty and splendor of the Great Outdoors is exhibited throughout the heritage of our country, and it is the exploration of this heritage that remains as one of the last frontiers.” This looks a little like a thesis, but is it?

No. For example, “the beauty and splendor of the Great Outdoors” sounds like a topic, but what picture does it give you? There are so many kinds of beauty and so many varieties of splendor that just to list them all might take several days. Right away we can see that the topic is too broad. The last part of the statement comes no closer to making sense to the reader:

“. . . exploration of the beauty and splendor of the Great Outdoors remains as one of the last frontiers.” You can imagine exploring the Great Outdoors, but what makes the Great Outdoors like a “last frontier”? This particular statement doesn’t focus readers’ attention on a precise idea or workable topic.

Make a point. Your readers should never read your thesis and say, “So what?” If you state your perspective, show your stance, declare a position, you have made an assertion about the topic that will draw your readers into the writing. Early drafts of essays often lack pointed assertions. A good thesis for an effective essay must focus the topic into a clear, sharp assertion.

Look at the opening paragraph of a student’s discovery draft on tourist attractions.

What can I say about tourist attractions? Well, tourist attractions are famous, or people wouldn’t go to see them. And some are interesting (although some are boring). Many are in cities, although small towns have them, too—not only museums and tall buildings but also old forts, monuments. Elementary school field trips are often to tourist attractions—I’ve had my share! They are often so crowded, and people are bustling around with their cameras and soda bottles—sometimes it’s hard to see the attraction for the crowds. Sometimes the crowd itself becomes the attraction.

This is fine for a first discovery draft. But it is clear that this student doesn’t yet recognize the point of what she wants to say. She has a topic without an assertion.

For this writer to draft a thesis, she must answer, “What about tourists?” One way to do this is to read the discovery draft for an assertion—something upon which to focus everything else you have to say.

When Carla, the student who wrote the paper on tourist attractions, looked over her discovery draft to spot a possible assertion, she realized that what interested her most in the writing was the statement about how tourists themselves can be the attraction. She would write about how you can get the benefits of traveling just by being with tourists. . . .

Be an Insider

After coming up with a clear thesis to discuss in an essay, you must ask this crucial question: “am I an insider in this matter?” If you know something about the topic or thesis that the reader doesn’t know, or if you have special expertise in the matter, you can present yourself as an insider.

Figure out and establish your special qualifications as an expert. For example, the student who writes about tourists doesn’t need to be a world traveler, or to have logged 10,000 trips to the Statue of Liberty to be an expert about her topic. She does need to know a good deal about being bored at a tourist attraction. Concentrating on tourists as the point of interest, she can—if she has been to a few tourist attractions—discuss the tourists she observed there, and show what makes them interesting to her (and thus to the reader).

It’s a point that can’t be emphasized too much: if you can’t write about something you’re an expert on, if you can’t give the reader the insider’s view, you’ll be staying on the surface and you’ll wind up with a rehash of what you both already know.

State the Thesis Clearly

Make sure the reader knows exactly what your message is going to be. Get that message out clearly early in the writing. Sometimes the message is expressed in the thesis sentence; other times it may come across to the reader through several sentences or even a whole paragraph. . . . But whether the thesis is expressed explicitly in one unmistakable sentence or whether it is embedded in several sentences or a paragraph, let the reader know clearly what the rest of the essay is going to be about. . . .

It’s always tempting to assume that anything interesting to you will also be interesting to the reader—but that’s not always the case. Have you identified a reader who will learn from, be entertained by, or be persuaded by your thesis and your development of it? Checking your thesis against your intended audience in advance can help you present a topic and approach that are exciting and satisfactory to you and that also connect with your audience.

THESIS CHECKLIST

• Have I made an assertion about a narrow, workable aspect of my topic?
• Have I used precise words to set up a specific focus?
• Have I said something about the topic that the reader doesn’t already know or hasn’t already thought about—have I been an insider?
• Have I stated the thesis clearly?
• Am I reasonably sure this thesis is something that will matter to the reader I have targeted for this writing?

Taken from: Neeld, Elizabeth Cowan and Kate Kiefer. Writing Brief: 3rd Ed . (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1990). 146-51.

Learning Center Tipsheet:

The Thesis Statement